中西服饰文化英文论文参考文献

中西服饰文化英文论文参考文献

隐喻的中西方文化差异Abstract: Metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a way of thinking, which is one of the basic methods for human survival and cognition. It is rooted in language, thought and culture. Through the analysis and comparison of the use and concept of metaphor in different countries, we find that its universality and commonality of the metaphor as a basic human cognitive activities. However, metaphor in different languages reflects a different way of thinking and behavior and different cultural patterns. Owing to the different two modes of thinking and culture, there are some differences in understanding and formation that can not be ignored. Therefore, this paper will discuss the questions : metaphor, cross-cultural differences, translation. 1. Preamble Metaphor is a common phenomenon, a large number of people use metaphor to express his feelings and ideas. British scientists rhetoric Richards (IARichards) once said, "We have day-to-day in almost every conversation in three sentences may be a metaphor." According to statistics, life around the use of 4,700,000 new metaphor, 2,140,000 stereotypes of metaphor. Research in recent years, there is a great metaphor. This article introduced in the definition of metaphor on the basis of summing up the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western metaphor, and that its culture, precisely because of the prevalence of metaphor, how to translate metaphor has become a very important issue in the latter part of the article is aimed at The translation of metaphor put forward a translation of the three strategies. This paper studies aimed at trying to comparative analysis of English and Chinese in a large number of day-to-day language of metaphor to express, find out the differences and similarities, in order to be able to accurately translate the article in good metaphor to explore a little. This article is about the metaphor from the point of view to explore the differences in the way Thinking allows us to a deeper understanding of language, culture, the relationship between thinking and can more clearly understand the different ethnic language, culture, way of thinking, and so on On the nature of translation. 2. Metaphors in Chinese and Western studies In 1980, Lakoff & Johnson (George Lakoff & Mark Johnson) made a "living metaphor" (Metaphors We Live By) of the book, a modern metaphor to open a new chapter in the school. Domestic academia on the "metaphor" This is also a review of the system, such as Lin Wu's book "Study abroad metaphor Looking at the" beam-setting "metaphor research," Li of China and India "The main subjects Metaphor" and so on. However, the Chinese metaphor for the academic study of rare. "Chinese scholars on the study of metaphor, I am afraid the real contribution should be through the metaphor of the Chinese characteristics of research and study, through the metaphor of the Chinese and other languages in the comparative study of metaphor, metaphor for the establishment of a more general theory of the strong, and even unique The basis. "Lin Wu in the book" metaphor of the basic research the status quo, and the focus of the trend "in the main text, put forward a model of cultural metaphors with the relationship:" The language of metaphor is the emergence of expression into the system, which not only reflects the psychological Structure, but also reflect the different cultural models also play a role. " metaphor in the relationship between Chinese and Western cultures relationship Correspond to (corresponding) refers to the relationship between the two languages, English and Chinese in the meaning and metaphor in the use of the same meaning in the culture and image, and so on and-one mapping. This is because the survival of mankind itself, as well as all the external conditions, including the geographical environment, climate change, and the whole of human society and cultural background are certain there is a common, which formed a common humanity of their own and the outside world on many issues. In the "angry" mood, the English are angry that physiological responses, such as: grind one's teeth. (Teeth), bare one's teeth. (Ziyaliezui) an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth), reflecting the Chinese culture on the basis of common experience. non-correspondence English-Chinese metaphor, after all, rooted in two different languages on the soil, resulting in very different cultural backgrounds, fully corresponds to the few metaphors, the vast majority do not have common cultural identity in order to form the corresponding non-(non-corresponding ) Relations. Non-relationship metaphor can be roughly divided into three categories: Vehicle counterpart, Yu Yi does not correspond to English and Chinese in some cases there is the same as a metaphor, but in their own language and culture in the meaning of the metaphor means is different, even different. Peacock in the Chinese culture is auspicious, a symbol of beauty, especially the Dai people to express jumped Pavaner desire to better their own. If the Chinese people will be likened to a peacock, it means that beautiful light. However, in English, peacock (Peacock) is a symbol of pride, often interpreted as arrogance, love to show off. For example, They were eager to take the young peacock down a peg. (They want to pressure a pressure that the arrogant young guy's momentum). counterpart Yu Yi, the vehicle does not correspond to English-Chinese two nations due to their differences, from different angles to look at things the same, it will be a different analogy. As a result both English and Chinese language there is a different vehicle, but Yu was referring to was basically the same as the meaning of the case, that is the same kind of non-correspondence. Such as: a person described as the hearts of anxious, restless, Chinese is "ants on the hot pan" and English is "a cat on the bricks". There are similar: To kick down the ladder. Guohechaiqiao. Yu Yu Yi and do not correspond to Some of the metaphors Yu-Yu has a meaning and it refers to the language and culture are closely related, in another culture often can not find corresponding Yu and Yu Yi, which resulted in a culture known as the default Phenomenon. For example: in English "my rib" I am referring to Yu's wife, it comes from the "Bible" story, that is, Adam (Adam)'s wife Eve (Eve) God is with a piece of Adam's rib made. The Chinese did not, "the Bible" cultural background, and there was no analogy with rib habit, so the formation of a corresponding gap. Similarly, "ugly duckling" (Ugly Duckling) refers to the metaphor will get ahead of Little, "early bird" refers to the diligent Yu, in the words into Chinese language, culture, as a result of the default, can not find a corresponding relationship between metaphor . Chinese and Western cultures in the common metaphor Metaphor and culture to a large extent, human beings have a common understanding, rooted in the people's own day-to-day experience. In this connection, often between different ethnic groups are the same. Both English and Chinese language in a lot of abstract thinking that the metaphorical expression is the same. For example: the human child in the period to form a position on the concept of input in that direction in the form of many of them easily understood, including the position expressed by metaphor, which has become a fixed pattern of thinking. For example: The term direction (up, down) to describe people's social status, physical, emotional, and other abstract concepts to the case when the good is up; Sad is down. We Chinese are also not difficult to find a similar sentence: "Gas Prices "," enhance the social status "and" vision "and" depressed. " Since the objective laws of nature with the relative unity of different cultures to understand the nature of the course is similar to the cognitive experience. in the metaphor of the difference between Chinese and Western cultures As the English-Chinese geographical and cultural differences, living in two different cultures in practice there are a lot of differences, and different life experiences and let people understand the objective world, a different language carries different nationalities Cultural characteristics and cultural information. Understanding of metaphor is not out of socio-cultural backgrounds. For example, social and cultural impact of the color words is deep-rooted, some color words in different cultures in an entirely different meaning, has a distinctive feature of our national culture. Such as: English, said in green "inexperienced" and "shallow knowledge", such as: "a green hand", "I was very green when I started working there." The Chinese like to express the meaning of the word is "yellow" Such as: "Huangmaoyatou" and "flower girl". Cultural background knowledge is the metaphor to create a rich source of thinking, as the Eastern and Western cultures are different, metaphors in English and Chinese applications there are also significant differences. The metaphor of the cross-cultural differences between Chinese and Western influence Language is a cultural change in the development of the complex, subject to political, economic, historical, environmental and other factors. Chinese and Western styles are different, but in many ways to infiltrate interaction and integration, language differences and cultural metaphor for the inevitable impact is complex and diverse. metaphorical expression of cultural conflict Different nationalities in the world to observe a different perspective and ideas, different cultures there are a lot of conflict or inconsistency metaphor. If the animal metaphors, in English Long (dragon) is a kind of evil, will belch out smoke monster. "Bible", the dragon is the devil, is a symbol of evil and terror, there is a terrible vicious meaning. The Chinese dragon is in power, the auspicious symbol of Chinese traditional culture, the Chinese have "Wangzichenglong", "descendants of the Dragon." The same analogy in different cultures, different meaning, of two cultures "Dragon" to give a different connotation. differences in living conditions caused by differences in metaphor In English is a lot of metaphor and marine-related, such as: all at sea (at a loss what to do); drink like a fish (drinking cow); fish in the air (Shuizhonglaoyue); give up the ship (give up). In Chinese, there are a lot of the horse or cattle pose a metaphor, such as: "a willing ox" (a willing horse) Gan means to serve the community; "old ox" (a working horse) refers to the hard work; "bragging "(Talk horse), and so on. This is due to different geographical location and natural environment caused by different cultural metaphor. Britain is an island, ultimately, dependent on the sea, and China is a large agricultural country, farming culture deeply feudal society. different religious and cultural differences arising from the metaphor Religious culture of human culture is an important part of it by referring to the nation's religious beliefs, such as the formation of the sense of culture, "the Bible" in the story, with its language and meaning has become a feature of daily life in the West in terms of . For example, power of the keys (the keys to the kingdom of heaven; the rights of the Pope), in the right church, but in the wrong pew (in general is right, but not the details), and so on. Chinese culture and Buddhism, Taoism and more affected by the impact of Confucianism, the Chinese, there are a lot of related argot. "Jiehuaxianfo"; "临时抱佛脚"; "做一天和尚撞一天钟" and so on. It is due to the diversity of culture, resulting in the differences between English and Chinese metaphor. This difference to the cross-cultural communication has brought the impact. As a foreign language students, do not understand the difference between metaphor and language will make mistakes, sometimes mistakenly made good as pleasant, caused by either one or both of the conversation unpleasant; also sometimes mocked as a praise. When a native language other operators do not understand the language contained in the cultural differences, it is often difficult for such language to accurately convey the meaning of the understanding, difficulty to the cross-cultural exchange. 3. Metaphor of the three methods of translation The translation of metaphor not only accurately and effectively convey the original language, but also loyal, accessible, complete reproduction of the original language and cultural connotation and significance. But in the West because of cultural differences and different, so the translation of metaphor in English on the need to consider not only its literal sense, and so on, but also in the West should pay attention to their cultural differences. American Eugene Nida said: "Translation is the exchange between the two cultures. The real success of the translation, even more familiar with the two cultures is more important to master two languages. Because only in terms of its role in the culture In the background will only be meaningful. "Therefore, the translation of metaphor to combining Chinese and Western cultures, and cultural backgrounds to leave the translation, can not be achieved between the two languages of the real exchange. Literal Translation The so-called "literal" is asked in the language when conditions permit, in the translation to maintain the original content, but also to maintain the original form, in particular, to maintain the original metaphor, the image of the nation, and other local color. In the literal translation method to maintain the original expression of the culture and at the same time, target enriched the vocabulary and expression, such as: "a Pandora's box" (Pandora's Box); "chain reaction" (chain reaction). In the original text and asked the information contained in the same culture, we should adopt the literal translation method. (1) You are my sunshine, my only sunshine. : You are my sun, my only sunshine. In Chinese and English, the sun is warm, beautiful, in both languages, they disseminate information on culture are the same. As a rule, and asked in the original text in the form of grammatical structure, similar to the style or color on basically the same, the law should adopt the literal translation. (1) He is another Shylock. : He is also a Shylock. (Note: Shakespeare's Shylock is "The Merchant of Venice" in a very harsh mean business People. ) (2) To carry coals to Newcastle. : Coal to Newcastle. (Note: "Newcastle" is a British coal, coal is superfluous here.) 4. Conclusion Metaphor as a way to figures of speech or skills, a unique feature of grammar, which features make the sentence more flexible and constructive, but the United States. Is a metaphor to express more complex ideas and things, a powerful tool. Wherever and whenever people in their daily lives are often used metaphor. As Mr. Lin Zhuang said: "The metaphor is no longer expanding his knowledge and understanding of a passive process. To help us in the form of new knowledge, the metaphor has played an active role so that we can better a better understanding of the objective world." In English and Chinese Metaphorical significance of the difference is due to cultural differences between East and West, that mode of thinking, moral values and sense of difference. However, different cultural impact of what is the concept of metaphor, it is still a need to examine and address the problem. At the same time, in the metaphor of the process of translation must pay special attention to cultural differences. The best translation is to be able to accurately reflect the true meaning of the author, as well as its cultural and stylistic characteristics of the translation, that is, the translation of metaphor to make as much as possible the original language and to achieve the target language culture, and so on.

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Chinese and Western cultural differences in the performance of every aspect of daily life from the greeting 、 term diet and cultural differences in the way of thinking in the abstract, such as differences everywhere, from the West focus on the following colors to express the difference between Chinese and Western cultural differences in areas such as a wedding set. First, in the West to express the color difference Different colors in different languages is not expressed in the same way. The representative of China in a sense, the West has a meaning that even the "color" to understand the meaning of the contrary. (A) red (red) Whether in China or in the English-speaking countries, often in red and festive celebrations or day-related. Calendar, red font used these days, therefore, red letter day: refers to the "Day" or "happy occasion." It also refers to the red "liabilities" or "loss" because people are always negative in red to register. So there are these phrases: red figure deficit in the red loss In common with the Chinese "red" words, translated into English, may not necessarily use the "red" for example: brown sugar brown sugar red wine red wine (B) yellow Yellow in English and Chinese in the extended meaning of the differences are considerable. In English, yellow can be said that the "timid, cowardly, despicable," meaning, for example: a yellow dog despicable, cowardly people a yellow livered coward Chinese yellow symbol of the term is sometimes vulgar, vulgar and obscene, indecent indecency means, such as yellow film, erotica, yellow CD, and so on. These in the name of "yellow" in English and "yellow" has nothing to do. However, in another English word blue is the color used to indicate the kind of meaning in Chinese, such as the blue jokes (dirty joke), blue films (yellow film). Second, the cultural differences in Western wedding First of all, in Western wedding culture and the first in the West in thinking about the differences: the Chinese people more conservative, like excitement, more old-fashioned thinking, so in the history of China for thousands of years the entire wedding customs did not change much. The thinking in the West is more open to the requirements of the wedding will be lower, they will be the climax of the wedding in the church: the sacred as the "wedding march" into the red carpet, Jiao Mei's father, the bride linked hands Rose walked slowly to the groom, the bride's father, daughter to the groom's hand on hand, her daughter's life will be entrusted to the groom, all eyes followed the couple, filled with well-being in their face. Second, the result of cultural differences wedding in the West because the West in a different religion. China is mainly Buddhist, but the West is mainly Christian. Therefore, the Western wedding is to be held in the church and the priest is Zhuhun Ren. China's traditional customs of the most important part of the Bai Tiandi is, the worship heaven and earth even after the ceremony has become.中西方文化差异表现在方方面面，从日常生活的打招呼用语、饮食文化等差异到思维方式等抽象方面的差异无所不在，下面着重从中西方颜色表达的差异，中西方婚礼文化差异等方面阐述。 一、中西方颜色表达的差异 不同颜色在不同语言中表达的方式并不一样。在中国代表一种意义，在西方又表示一种涵义，甚至对“颜色”的涵义理解恰恰相反。（一）red（红色）无论是在英语国家还是在中国，红色往往与庆祝活动或喜庆日子有关。日历中，这些日子常用红色字体，因此，red letter day：指的是“纪念日”或“喜庆的日子”。红色还指“负债”或“亏损”，因为人们总是用红笔登记负数。于是就有了这些词组：red figure赤字 in the red亏损汉语中常用的带“红”字的词语，翻译成英语，可不一定用“red”例如：红糖brown sugar 红酒red wine （二） yellow黄色在英语和汉语中的引申含义差别比较大。英语中，yellow可以表示“胆小、卑怯、卑鄙”的意思，例如：a yellow dog 可鄙的人，卑鄙的人a yellow livered 胆小鬼汉语中黄色一词有时象征低级趣味、色情庸俗、下流猥亵的意思，如黄色电影、黄色书刊、黄色光碟等等。这些名称中的“黄”与英语中的“yellow”无关。然而，英语中另一个颜色词blue却常用来表示汉语中这类意思，如blue jokes（下流的玩笑）， blue films（黄色电影）等。 二、中西方婚礼文化差异 首先，中西方婚礼文化差异首先和中西方人在思维方面的差异有关：中国人比较保守，喜欢热闹，思维较古板，所以在中国历史几千年的时间里整个婚礼的习俗并没有多大的变化。而西方人的思想则比较开放，对于婚礼的要求也比较低，他们婚礼的高潮则是在教堂中：随着神圣的《婚礼进行曲》步入鲜红的地毯，娇美的新娘挽着父亲手捧玫瑰慢慢向新郎走去，新娘的父亲将女儿的手放在新郎的手上，将女儿的一生托付给新郎，所有人的目光注视着这对新人，幸福洋溢在他们的脸上。其次，造成中西方婚礼文化差异的原因是中西方不同的宗教。中国是以佛教为主，而西方则是基督教为主的。所以西方的婚礼是在教堂中举行而主婚人则是神甫。中方的传统婚俗中的最重要环节就是拜天地，拜了天地以后就算是礼成了。

摘 要礼仪，是整个社会文明的基础，是社会文明最直接最全面的表现方式。中国是礼仪之邦，有着灿烂的五千年文化华夏文明，在世界上影响深远。著名国学家钱穆先生就曾经说过，“中国文化的核心就是礼”。当在近200多年，随着西方国家的崛起，西方主导着世界。现今国际通行的礼仪基本上是西方礼仪。这种现象的原因并不仅仅是西方的实力强大，深层的原因在于西方人价值观的统一，在于西方人对自身文化的高度认同和深刻觉悟。在今天中西方礼仪文化的融合过程中，我们中国，更多的还是借鉴西方。但无论是借鉴西方的礼仪，或者是我们是自创一套自己的礼仪系统，这在形式上都不难。难的是我们也能有一个完整的价值体系，有对自身文化的高度认同和深刻觉悟。我们借鉴西方礼仪，不仅仅是要借鉴它的形式，更应当借鉴其内在灵魂，只有这样我们才能建立起自己的自信和优越感，才能确立我们的感染力。民族的复兴不仅是实力的复兴，更是一种文化的复兴。只有别人也认同我们的文化，才能真正使我们的礼仪行于世界。关键词：中西方，礼仪，差异 引 言礼仪、是人与人之间交流的规则，是一种语言，也是一种工具。由于形成礼仪的重要根源——宗教信仰的不同，使得世界上信仰不同宗教的人们遵守着各不相同的礼仪。中国是四大文明古国之一，中华民族是唯一传承千年的文明和民族。中国的礼仪，始于夏商周，盛于唐宋，经过不断地发展变化，逐渐形成体系。西方社会，是几大古代文明的继承者，曾一直和东方的中国遥相呼应。经过中世纪的黑暗，最终迎来了文艺复兴，并孕育了资本主义和现代文明，产生了现代科技和文化。中西方有着截然不同的礼仪文化。 随着我国改革开放的步伐日益加快，跨国交际日益增多，中西方礼仪文化的差异更是越发显露，这种差异带来的影响也是不容忽视，在中西礼仪没有得到完美融合之前，我们有必要了解这些礼仪的差异。有于各国的历史与文化底蕴不同，各国人民在进行礼尚交往时的习惯也有不少差异。特别是中西方之间，礼仪上的差别很大，因为不了解这些差异而引起的误会和笑话并不少见。近代历史上有两则故事，相信大家会比较熟悉。故事一是：李鸿章曾应俾斯麦之邀前往赴宴，由于不懂西餐礼仪，把一碗吃水果后洗手的水喝了。当时俾斯麦不了解中国的虚实，为了不使李鸿章丢丑，他也将洗手水一饮而尽，见此情景，其他文武百官只能忍笑奉陪。还有一个故事是：一个国民党军官携夫人去机场迎接来自美国的顾问。双方见面后，美国顾问出于礼貌说:“您的夫人真漂亮!”军官甚感尴尬又不免客套一番：“哪里，哪里!”在中国，这本是一句很普通的客套话，可是蹩脚的翻译却把这句话译成：where?where?美国顾问听了莫明其妙，心想：我只是礼貌地称赞一下他的夫人，他居然问起我他的夫人哪里漂亮?于是他只好说：“从头到脚都漂亮!”这两个故事都是由于中西文化差异闹出的礼仪上的笑话。由此可见，了解中西方礼尚交往之间的习惯差异是很有必要的。往大处来说，一个国家无论是在政治上，还是在经济贸易中，了解对方国家的礼仪习惯，将有利于各国之间的交往。从小处来讲，一个人了解对方的礼仪民间习惯，是对对方的尊重，容易给对方留下一个好印象，以便交往的顺利进行。随着东西方文化的不断发展，东西方的礼仪正在相互融合，西方人逐渐地接受了东方文化中重情感等合理因素，东方人也逐渐地接受了西方文化中先进文明的礼仪和交往方式。但在现实生活中，由于东西方文化的差异而对礼仪产生的影响还很多。1、 研究中西礼仪差异及原因 中西方礼仪差异的背景东方文明和西方文明都是在一定的社会历史条件下产生和发展的，没有孰优孰劣的问题。就西方来说，它的历史只有短短200年，而它的人民是从各个地方移民而来的，众多不同民族和种族都融合在一起。他们信奉的誓言是：“只要我们能够梦想的我们就一定能够实现！”这是西方精神，是在英雄主义和献身精神的基础上建立起来的，以它短短200年的历史，创造了人类史上的灿烂文明，它所创造的生产力，比过去一切世代创造的全部生产力还要多，这就是西方的魅力。造成中西方礼仪差异的根本原因，是中西方文化环境的不同，使得各国的人民有着完全不同的道德标准体系和价值观。 中西方观念的差异东方文化崇尚集体和团体精神,人们的倚赖性较强。而西方文化崇尚独立和个性自由。比如,中国人讲究修身,齐家,治国,平天下,人品是至关重要的，而这种人品是建立在关心国家,热爱集体,家庭和睦,人际关系和谐的基础之上。如果只考虑个人的利益,你的人品则大大的折扣。 而在西方人们法制观念较强。在此前提下,他们崇尚个人自由,不愿受到来自政府,教会或其他组织的干涉,喜欢我行我素。在家庭中,孩子们从小就被灌输自立自强的观念。青年人总是希望自己能尽量早独立,摆脱父母的管束,他们不希望过分的倚赖家庭,倚赖父母,否则,他们将失去自由,失去别人对他们的尊重。再这一点上,中国文化则有所不同。家庭是中国人最重视的生活集体。父母对孩子倍加珍惜,恨不能一切都为孩子想到,以致于当孩子长大成人，结婚时要给孩子大操大办,当孩子有了孩子后,还要牺牲自己的晚年来照顾自己的孙子,即把自己的全部希望寄托在孩子身上,又过分的照顾孩子,结果使孩子的自理能力较差,甚至于在中国今天在计划经济向市场经济转轨过程中,国有企业职工极不情愿丢掉铁饭碗，这种倚赖性是中国传统文化的遗产。这种文化上的差异，导致中西方观念很大的差异，以至于中西方礼仪从根本上有很大的差异。 礼仪是与本土的思想文化相对应的，由于形成礼仪的重要根源――宗教信仰――的不同，使得世界上信仰不同宗教的人们遵守着各不相同的礼仪。梁启超在有名的《劝学篇》里面讲到:“中学为内学,西学为外学;中学致身心,西学应世事。”在礼仪的表现中,西方更多的聚焦在行为、语言的面上；而中国礼仪在长期历史发展过程中,不仅行为人的语言、行动本身具有话语意义,同时还需从行为人的语言、行动中去“悟”出一些东西,在言传的同时,还需意会。东方文明和西方文明都是在一定的社会历史条件下产生和发展的，没有孰优孰劣的问题。 2、 中西方见面的礼仪的差异西方人见面时，不一定会握手，只要笑一笑，打个招呼就行了，即使是第一次见面，而中国人则视握手为一个基本礼节。但在中国握手并没有太多的限定，而西方人握手是有一定礼节的。例如男女之间，女方先伸出手，若女方无握手之意，男子就只能点头鞠躬致意；长幼之间由长辈先伸出手；上下级之间，由上级先伸出手；宾主之间由主人先伸出手。而且握手时应注视对方，并摘下手套，否则会被视为不礼貌。 中西方称呼的差异在西方,称呼是比较笼统的，一个称呼可以涵盖中国很多称呼。例如，西方称呼男的为先生，称呼女的女士或小姐，而在我国“先生”第一解释是“教师”,是对教师最古老最悠久的称谓。随着改革开放,先生已成为社会上最流行的尊称口语，西方人称”uncle”,可以涵盖我国的婶婶，伯母，姨。他们对这些方面的关系也不如中国分明,中国父亲那边的为伯伯，姑姑，堂兄妹，母亲方为舅，姨，表兄妹。在西方，人们见面时喜欢直呼其名，这是亲切友好的表示，纵使交谈之初可能互相用姓称呼，但过一会儿就改称名字。而在中国，人们很喜欢被称为某某经理，某某总裁，因为这是身份与地位的象征。但在西方，人们很少用正式的头衔称呼别人，正式的头衔只用于法官、高级政府官员，军官，医生，教授和高级宗教人士。值得注意的是，西方从来不用行政职务如局长、经理、校长等头衔来称呼别人。 中西方对隐私的看法另外，在与人交谈时，切不可谈及个人的私事，诸如年龄、婚姻、收入、信仰等等。看到别人买的东西不可问其价格；如果看到别人回来，也不能问他去哪儿了或者从哪里来，否则就会遭人厌恶，西方人常用“鼻子伸到人家私生活里来了”这句话来表示对提问人的轻蔑。而在中国，人们对个人隐私的界限远没有这么深刻，人们并不会在意别人对自己的生活作一般了解。但在中国人与美国人打交道时，在中国人看来很普通地问对方一些家庭情况，美国人就很可能认为你侵犯了他的隐私，别有用心，一桩生意很可能就这样泡汤了。 中国人通常是见面喜欢点点头，握握手或行拱手礼，或者微微欠身然后握手，而西方人觉得欠身似乎显得自卑。在西方，特别在欧美国家，拥抱礼却是十分常见的见面礼与道别礼，亲吻礼和吻手礼也是常见的西方见面礼。握手礼来源于西方人类半野蛮半文明时期。这种习惯逐渐演变成今天作为见面和告辞的“握手”礼节，被大多数国家所接受。在我国，握手礼不但在见面和告辞时使用，而且还作为一种祝贺、感谢或相互鼓励的表示。因此是社交中应用最广泛的致意礼节。见面、道别时的礼貌演变到今天就是“你好”、“再见”两个短语，客气的顶多再互相握下手，在各种古怪疾病流行的今天显得简洁而卫生而又体面。然而西方国家，见面就要先送贴面礼、亲吻礼和吻手礼，让我们很不习惯也不能接受。 3、 中西餐餐桌上礼仪的差异中国人有句话叫“民以食为天”，由此可见饮食在中国人心目中的地位，因此中国人将吃饭看作头等大事。中国菜注重菜肴色、香、味、形、意俱全，甚至于超过了对营养的注重，只要好吃又要好看，营养反而显得不重要了。西方的饮食比较讲究营养的搭配和吸收，是一种科学的饮食观念。西方人多注重食物的营养而忽略了食物的色、香、味、形、意如何，他们的饮食多是为了生存和健康，似乎不讲究味的享受。 中西方餐桌氛围的差异在餐饮氛围方面，中国人在吃饭的时候都喜欢热闹，很多人围在一起吃吃喝喝，说说笑笑，大家在一起营造一种热闹温暖的用餐氛围。除非是在很正式的宴会上，中国人在餐桌上并没有什么很特别的礼仪。而西方人在用餐时，都喜欢幽雅、安静的环境，他们认为在餐桌上的时候一定要注意自己的礼仪，不可以失去礼节，比如在进餐时不能发出很难听的声音。 中西方用餐时的差异中西方宴请礼仪也各具特色。从传统习俗上说，中国人请客，不论按长、尊、主、次围桌而坐，满桌丰盛的酒菜，主人频频劝酒，客人谦让礼到。中国人觉得这样的宴客方式才能体现主人的热情和诚恳。另外宴客时崇尚热闹欢快的气氛，讲究面子排场。排场之大，气氛之热闹常常令人叹为观止。较随便的形式则是主人邀上三五知己，到家中由女主人炒几个菜，小酌一番。这种随便的宴客形式不讲究礼仪，不讲究坐次，不讲究饭菜，只讲气氛的和谐、主人的热诚、主客谈话的投机。当然，近年来西方的一些宴客形式，如酒会、招待会、自助餐或冷餐也会传到中国，但这些多是官方或单位出面组织的宴请形式，平民百姓还少有实行。在西方则是以右为尊，男女间隔而座，夫妇也分开而座，女宾客的席位比男宾客的席位稍高，男士要替位于自己右边的女宾客拉椅子，以示对女士的尊重。 另外，西方人用餐时要坐正，认为弯腰，低头，用嘴凑上去吃不礼貌，但是这恰恰是中国人通常吃饭的方式。吃西餐的时候，主人不提倡大肆的饮酒，中国的餐桌上酒是必备之物，以酒助兴，有时为了表示对对方的尊重，喝酒的时候都是一杯一杯的喝。中国人的餐桌要热闹，西洋餐桌则安静。中国人要用言行来劝酒劝食，西方人只是用语言劝酒而已。酒文化在中国由来已久，被视为做生意，交朋友等社交场合不可或缺的。酒杯不空茶水不满。在西方，通常喝啤酒、葡萄酒，不喜欢劝酒。在中国，宴会喜欢共桌共菜，西方则认为不合卫生，实行分餐制。中国人宴请时，觥筹交错，歌舞升平。西方则要求少声响少动作，用餐程序较多。 4、 中西方服饰礼仪的差异古今中外，着装从来都体现着一种社会文化，体现着一个人的文化修养和审美情趣，是一个人的身份、气质、内在素质的无言的介绍信。从某种意义上说，服饰是一门艺术，服饰所能传达的情感与意蕴甚至不是用语言所能替代的。在不同场合，穿着得体、适度的人，给人留下良好的印象，而穿着不当，则会降低人的身份，损害自身的形象。在社交场合，得体的服饰是一种礼貌，一定程度上直接影响着人际关系的和谐。影响着装效果的因素，重要的一是要有文化修养和高雅的审美能力，即所谓“腹有诗书气自华”。二是要有运动健美的素质。健美的形体是着装美的天然条件。三是要掌握着装的常识、着装原则和服饰礼仪的知识，这是达到内外和谐统一美的不可或缺的条件。 中西方服饰礼着重点及代表服饰西方人注重身份，把衣服变成象征，中国注重韵味。如果说西方服饰文化刻意追求表现人体美，而完全忽视了服饰伦理，那么，中国服饰文化由于受到传统的伦理价值观念的影响还或多或少地保留着一些道德上的体统。而最能代表我们国家的是中山装，西方代表装是西装。 穿中山服时，不仅要扣上全部衣扣，而且要系上领扣，并且不允许挽起衣袖。在穿双排扣西服时，必须扣上全部衣扣。穿单排三粒扣西服时，仅能扣上上一粒或中、上两粒扣子；穿单排两粒扣西服时，只能扣上上一粒扣子；不允许扣上单排扣西服的全部衣扣。在穿西服时，宜穿白色衬衫，并打领带，领带打好后的标准长度，是其下端抵达皮带扣。 西方男士在正式社交场合通常穿保守式样的西装，内穿白衬衫，打领带。他们喜欢黑色，因此一般穿黑色的皮鞋。西方女士在正式场合要穿礼服套装。另外女士外出有戴耳环的习俗。西方国家，尤其是在美国，平时人们喜欢穿着休闲装，如T恤加牛仔服。 当今中国人穿着打扮日趋西化，传统的中山装、旗袍等已退出历史舞台。正式场合男女着装已与西方并无二异。在平时的市井生活中，倒会看到不少人穿着背心、短裤、拖鞋等不合礼仪的服。 俗话讲，人是衣服，马是鞍。尽管以貌取人并不可取，但是在现代生活中，服饰越来越成为礼仪的一个重要部分，穿着打扮的得体与否，不仅仅是个人品位的体现，更能成为人们彼此考虑的一个尺度。伟大的英国作家莎士比亚曾经说：“一个人的穿着打扮，就是他的教养、品位、地位的最真实的写照”。那么在日常工作和交往中，尤其是在正规的场合，穿着打扮的问题越来越引起我们现代人的重视。 5、结束语礼仪是一种文化，是文化就有纵向的传承和横向的借鉴与融合。 在今天中西方礼仪文化的融合的过程中，我国更多的还是借鉴西方。但无论是借鉴西方的礼仪，或者是我们是自创一套自己的礼仪系统，这在形式上都不难。难的是我们也能有一个完整的价值体系，有对自身文化的高度认同和深刻觉悟。我们借鉴西方礼仪，不仅仅是要借鉴它的形式，更应当借鉴其内在灵魂，只有这样我们才能建立起自己的自信和优越感，才能确立我们的感染力。民族的复兴不仅是实力的复兴，更是一种文化的复兴。只有别人也认同我们的文化，才能真正使我们的礼仪行于世界。 人无礼则不立，事无礼则不成，国无礼则不宁。一个礼仪缺乏的社会，往往是不成熟的社会。而一个礼仪标准不太统一甚至互相矛盾的社会，往往是一个不和谐的社会。礼仪，是整个社会文明的基础，是社会文明最直接最全面的表现方式。创建和谐社会，必须先从礼仪开始。中国今天面临前所未有的挑战，无论是物质，精神，文化各个方面，都急迫的需要一套完整而合理的价值观进行统一。而礼仪文化无疑是这种统一的“先行军”，只有认清中西礼仪文化的差异，将二者合理有效的融合，方能建立适合中国当代社会的礼仪文化体系，达到和谐社会的理想。参考文献 [1] 金正坤 商务礼仪 北京大学出版社 2004[2] 张占一 试仪焦急文化和知识文化 语言教学与研究 1990[3] 廖文丽 比喻中的中西方文化差异 湘潭大学社会科学学报 2001[4] 吴 冰 中西方文化差异拾零 闽西职业大学学报 2002[5] 邢 东 中美文化差异管窥 全国优秀英语学术论文集 1997[6] 陈 平 商务礼仪 中国电影出版社

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你这篇中国知网也好，万方数据也好都有例子！甚至百度文库都有！==================论文写作方法===========================论文网上没有免费的，与其花人民币，还不如自己写，万一碰到人的，就不上算了。写作论文的简单方法，首先大概确定自己的选题，然后在网上查找几份类似的文章，通读一遍，对这方面的内容有个大概的了解！参照论文的格式，列出提纲，补充内容，实在不会，把这几份论文综合一下，从每篇论文上复制一部分，组成一篇新的文章！然后把按自己的语言把每一部分换下句式或词，经过换词不换意的办法处理后,网上就查不到了,祝你顺利完成论文!

1 “和服”中体现的日本人的几个性格特征 长治学院学报 2007/01 2 浅谈和服形色变迁与日本人的审美意识 消费导刊 2007/03 3 中国唐代女装与日本和服造型研究 辽宁丝绸 2006/03 4 日本和服手绘纹样的审美特征 华中师范大学学报(人文社会科学版) 2006/06 5 中日服饰文化交融的产物:和服 浙江纺织服装职业技术学院学报 2006/04

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中国传统服饰文化论文参考文献

先来挂个号 等我详细回答你你看这些够用不？ 已经很多了 如果还不够 单独联系吧[1]Patrick Vyncke. Lifestyle Segmentation. European Journal of Communication Copyright © 2002. SAGE Publications [2] 唐纳德•勒曼 拉塞尔•威纳. 《营销分析实务》.企业管理出版社. 2004 [3] 郑丽萍. 《国际服装业十大实力品牌发展战略》. 浙江大学出版社. 2003 [4] 林资敏 陈德文.《生活型态写真馆》.上海财经大学出版社. 2003 [5] 郑丽萍.《旗舰日志-国际服装业十大实力品牌发展战略》.浙江大学出版 社. 2003 [6] 菲利普•科特勒.《营销管理：分析、计划、执行与控制》. 清华大学出版社.2000 [7] 余志鸿.《符号——传播的游戏规则》. 上海交通大学出版社. 2003 [8] 顾松林 菲利斯（美）.《消费品营销反思》.上海远东出版社. 2000 [6] J.保罗•彼得.《消费者行为与营销战略》.东北财经出版社. 2000 [7] 里斯 特劳特.《定位》. 中国经济财政出版社.2002 [8] Ferle, C. L., Edwards, S. M., & Lee, W. (2000). Teens’ use of traditional media and the Internet. Journal of Advertising Research, 40(3), 55-65. [9] Anderson, C. (2000). Survey: The young: Youth, Inc. The Economist, 357(8202), S9-S10. [10] White, N. (2002) Markets from Networks: Socioeconomic Models of Production. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. [11] Peter, . and . Olson (1994) Understanding Consumer Behavior. Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin. [12] Patrick Vyncke. Lifestyle Segmentation-From Attitudes, Interests and Opinions, to Values, Aesthetic Styles, Life Visions and Media Preferences. European Journal of Communication Copyright © 2002. SAGE Publications [13] Chaney, D. (1996) Lifestyles. London: Routledge. [14] Cosmas, . (1982) ‘Life Styles and Consumption Patterns’, Journal of ConsumerResearch 8: 453–5. [15] Kahle, . and L. Chiagouris (eds) (1997) Values, Lifestyles, and Psychographics. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. [16] Kevin Lane Keller. Strategic Brand Management [M]. Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice-Hall, 1998. [17] Aspers, P. (2001) Markets in Fashion: A Phenomenological Approach. Stockholm: City University Press. [18] Kevin Goldman, Adidas Tries To Fill Its Rivals Big Shoes [J]. Wall Street Journal, 1994-03-17. [19] Wolburg, . and J. Pokrywczynski (2001) . A Psychographic Analysis of Generation Y College Students, Journal of Advertising Research 41(5):33–50. [20] Joanne Entwistle. The Aesthetic Economy-The production of value in the field of fashion modeling. Copyright © 2002 SAGE Publications, (London, Thousand Oaks, CA and New Delhi) Vol 2(3): 317–339 [1] 汤姆•邓肯. 《整合营销传播：利用广告和促销建树品牌》. 中国财政经济出版社. 2004 [2] 郑丽萍. 《国际服装业十大实力品牌发展战略》. 浙江大学出版社. 2003 [3] Patrick Vyncke. Lifestyle Segmentation. European Journal of Communication Copyright © 2002. SAGE Publications 1、 服装CAD/CAM概论 中国纺织出版社 [英]斯蒂芬`格瑞 2、 计算机辅助工艺设计 机械工业出版社 赵汝嘉，孙波主编 3、机械CAD/CAM 葛巧琴、许超.南京:东南大学出版社,1998 4、王隆太.现代制造技术. 北京：机械工业出版社，1998. 5、服装设计与工程 东华大学出版社 服装设计与工程编写组 6 、计算机辅助服装设计教程 电子工业出版社 武晓丽 主编 7 、机械CAD技术与应用 东北林业大学出版社 关晓平 等著 8 、CAD/CAM技术 唐荣锡..北京：北京航空航天大学出版社，1994. 9 、中国传统服饰文化 东华大学出版社 楼慧珍 等编著 10、服装人体工效学与服装设计 中国轻工业出版社 潘健华 著 11、计算机集成制造技术 孙志挥等南京：东南大学出版社，1997. 12、计算机辅助机械设计 许超、汤文成等南京：东南大学出版社，1997.

中国传统文化参考文献有如下：

1.《如何保护民族优秀传统文化》

2.《谈民族文化的保护与传承》

3.《文化的传承与弘扬》

“中国”、“中华”、“华夏”乃同义词（古指中原或中原王朝，当代指中国国家），源于中原地区指黄河中下游一带。其流传年代久远，与埃及、美索不达米亚平原、印度的其他三大古文明大概同时期产生。

流传地域广至东亚与东南亚地区，影响层面包含政治意识、思想宗教、教育、生活文化。其文化圈概念亦被称为“华夏文化圈”与“汉文化圈”。

中华文明亦称华夏文明，是世界上最古老的文明之一，也是世界上持续时间最长的文明之一。中华文明历史源远流长，若从黄帝时代算起，已有5000年 。

举世公认，中国是历史最悠久的文明古国之一。一般认为，中华文明的直接源头有多个，而其中又以黄河文明和长江文明为主，黄河与长江被人们称为中华民族的“母亲河”。

中国神话，中华文化与历史的瑰宝，通过口耳相传或书面文字记载等各种形式流传在寓言、小说、宗教、舞蹈、戏曲中。某方面而言，上古神话会被假定是历史真实的一部份，

最初的文字记载散见于《山海经》、《水经注》、《尚书》、《史记》、《吕氏春秋》、《淮南子》等古典中。

晋代至明清时，中国文学史上又出现了一种被称为“志怪小说”或“神魔小说”的类别，当中很多是参考了神话、传说和仙话，其中有名的当属《西游记》、《封神演义》及《聊斋志异》、《搜神记》等。

你这篇中国知网也好，万方数据也好都有例子！甚至百度文库都有！==================论文写作方法===========================论文网上没有免费的，与其花人民币，还不如自己写，万一碰到人的，就不上算了。写作论文的简单方法，首先大概确定自己的选题，然后在网上查找几份类似的文章，通读一遍，对这方面的内容有个大概的了解！参照论文的格式，列出提纲，补充内容，实在不会，把这几份论文综合一下，从每篇论文上复制一部分，组成一篇新的文章！然后把按自己的语言把每一部分换下句式或词，经过换词不换意的办法处理后,网上就查不到了,祝你顺利完成论文!

[1] 刘岳屏. 服装展示空间设计初探[J]. 广东建筑装饰, 2007, (04) . [2] 李洪琴. 民族民间服饰的现代设计方向[J]. 安徽文学(下半月), 2006, (09) . [3] 梁宇,李曼. 法国天才的时装设计师——伊夫·圣·洛朗[J]. 世界博览, 1985, (05) . [4] 陈沛照,王希辉. 花蓝瑶服饰文化内涵阐释[J]. 承德民族师专学报, 2006, (02) . [5] 孙云. 浅析中国民族服饰文化与现代服装设计相结合的意义途径[J]. 太原城市职业技术学院学报, 2007, (06) . [6] 朱剑波. 朝鲜族传统服饰特征及其民俗探源[J]. 东北电力大学学报, 2006, (05) . [7] 尹笑. 飘如游云 矫若惊龙 中国古代服装之美[J]. 东方艺术, 2006, (02) . [8] 林朝阳. 中国古代服色的审美意识[J]. 东华大学学报(社会科学版), 2005, (03) . [9] 蒋孝锋,刘国联,蒋琳. 中、日、韩三国人对于民族服装的态度与选择要素的比较研究[J]. 东华大学学报(社会科学版), 2006, (03) . [10] 高秀明. 服装展示与服装艺术[J]. 东华大学学报(自然科学版), 2000, (01) .

中国服饰文化英语论文

历经秦朝的严苟政治，刘邦以平民得天下，力求予民休息，一般制度多无太大改变，冠服制度，也大都承袭秦制。直至东汉明帝永平二年，才算有正式完备的规定。汉朝的衣服，主要的有袍、襜褕［直身的单衣］、襦［短衣］、裙。汉代因为织绣工业很发达，所以有钱人家就可以穿绫罗绸缎漂亮的衣服。一般人家穿的是短衣长裤，贫穷人家穿的是短褐［粗布做的短衣］。汉朝的妇女穿着有衣裙两件式，也有长袍，裙子的样式也多了，最有名的是「留仙裙」。男服服饰：礼服：汉朝的祭祀礼服，承袭了秦代的废除「六冕」，以一种冕服为祭天地明堂之礼服的办法。冕冠服：为最尊贵的祭祀礼服，是天子及三公诸候、卿大夫祭天地明堂之时穿着。长冠服：为夫子和执事百官，用在祭宗庙及各种小祀，如五岳、四渎、山川、社稷等典礼穿者。委貌冠服：相当于周代的冠弁服。为公卿诸候大夫行大射礼于辟雍的时候穿着。皮弁冠服：此种冠服为大射礼时，执事者穿着，衣裳为缁麻衣，皂领袖、素裳。朝服：自秦开始以袍作为朝服，汉代从皇帝至贱更小吏亦以袍作为朝服，也是主要常服。亦即是深衣制的袍服，不过因不同身份的人戴的冠不同而有不同之名称。汉代的朝服，服色是随着五时色，即春青、夏朱、季夏黄、秋白、冬黑。朝服均是衬以告缘领袖的中衣。女服服饰：庙服：相当于周代的禕衣，是女子礼服中，地位最尊贵的一种。太皇太后、皇太后之入庙服，皇后之谒庙服，其服色是皂下。蚕服：相当于周代约鞠衣。每年三月，皇后帅领公卿诸侯夫人亲蚕礼时穿着。朝服：自二千石夫人以上至皇后，皆以蚕衣为朝服。

Summary: We can see various forms, a lot of elements in popular clothes, it is extremely extensive that the national subject matter is applied in popular clothes nowadays, have already nowadays become a kind of fashion. This text is started with by the dress culture of Dong in the Chinese ethnic minority, pass to Dong's regional on-the-spot investigation, understand characteristic, line kind, craft and structure of dress of Dong,etc. in depth, on how use and develop Dong element of dress among modern dress, this text is from analyzing the dress of present Dong minority area is started with, collect through the materials, further investigate, make, graduate design works, to ethnic minority dress application and develop new form launch the research in concrete and deep discussion among modern dress, have put forward some suggestions that this text obtains after analysing and researching.

隐喻的中西方文化差异Abstract: Metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a way of thinking, which is one of the basic methods for human survival and cognition. It is rooted in language, thought and culture. Through the analysis and comparison of the use and concept of metaphor in different countries, we find that its universality and commonality of the metaphor as a basic human cognitive activities. However, metaphor in different languages reflects a different way of thinking and behavior and different cultural patterns. Owing to the different two modes of thinking and culture, there are some differences in understanding and formation that can not be ignored. Therefore, this paper will discuss the questions : metaphor, cross-cultural differences, translation. 1. Preamble Metaphor is a common phenomenon, a large number of people use metaphor to express his feelings and ideas. British scientists rhetoric Richards (IARichards) once said, "We have day-to-day in almost every conversation in three sentences may be a metaphor." According to statistics, life around the use of 4,700,000 new metaphor, 2,140,000 stereotypes of metaphor. Research in recent years, there is a great metaphor. This article introduced in the definition of metaphor on the basis of summing up the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western metaphor, and that its culture, precisely because of the prevalence of metaphor, how to translate metaphor has become a very important issue in the latter part of the article is aimed at The translation of metaphor put forward a translation of the three strategies. This paper studies aimed at trying to comparative analysis of English and Chinese in a large number of day-to-day language of metaphor to express, find out the differences and similarities, in order to be able to accurately translate the article in good metaphor to explore a little. This article is about the metaphor from the point of view to explore the differences in the way Thinking allows us to a deeper understanding of language, culture, the relationship between thinking and can more clearly understand the different ethnic language, culture, way of thinking, and so on On the nature of translation. 2. Metaphors in Chinese and Western studies In 1980, Lakoff & Johnson (George Lakoff & Mark Johnson) made a "living metaphor" (Metaphors We Live By) of the book, a modern metaphor to open a new chapter in the school. Domestic academia on the "metaphor" This is also a review of the system, such as Lin Wu's book "Study abroad metaphor Looking at the" beam-setting "metaphor research," Li of China and India "The main subjects Metaphor" and so on. However, the Chinese metaphor for the academic study of rare. "Chinese scholars on the study of metaphor, I am afraid the real contribution should be through the metaphor of the Chinese characteristics of research and study, through the metaphor of the Chinese and other languages in the comparative study of metaphor, metaphor for the establishment of a more general theory of the strong, and even unique The basis. "Lin Wu in the book" metaphor of the basic research the status quo, and the focus of the trend "in the main text, put forward a model of cultural metaphors with the relationship:" The language of metaphor is the emergence of expression into the system, which not only reflects the psychological Structure, but also reflect the different cultural models also play a role. " metaphor in the relationship between Chinese and Western cultures relationship Correspond to (corresponding) refers to the relationship between the two languages, English and Chinese in the meaning and metaphor in the use of the same meaning in the culture and image, and so on and-one mapping. This is because the survival of mankind itself, as well as all the external conditions, including the geographical environment, climate change, and the whole of human society and cultural background are certain there is a common, which formed a common humanity of their own and the outside world on many issues. In the "angry" mood, the English are angry that physiological responses, such as: grind one's teeth. (Teeth), bare one's teeth. (Ziyaliezui) an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth), reflecting the Chinese culture on the basis of common experience. non-correspondence English-Chinese metaphor, after all, rooted in two different languages on the soil, resulting in very different cultural backgrounds, fully corresponds to the few metaphors, the vast majority do not have common cultural identity in order to form the corresponding non-(non-corresponding ) Relations. Non-relationship metaphor can be roughly divided into three categories: Vehicle counterpart, Yu Yi does not correspond to English and Chinese in some cases there is the same as a metaphor, but in their own language and culture in the meaning of the metaphor means is different, even different. Peacock in the Chinese culture is auspicious, a symbol of beauty, especially the Dai people to express jumped Pavaner desire to better their own. If the Chinese people will be likened to a peacock, it means that beautiful light. However, in English, peacock (Peacock) is a symbol of pride, often interpreted as arrogance, love to show off. For example, They were eager to take the young peacock down a peg. (They want to pressure a pressure that the arrogant young guy's momentum). counterpart Yu Yi, the vehicle does not correspond to English-Chinese two nations due to their differences, from different angles to look at things the same, it will be a different analogy. As a result both English and Chinese language there is a different vehicle, but Yu was referring to was basically the same as the meaning of the case, that is the same kind of non-correspondence. Such as: a person described as the hearts of anxious, restless, Chinese is "ants on the hot pan" and English is "a cat on the bricks". There are similar: To kick down the ladder. Guohechaiqiao. Yu Yu Yi and do not correspond to Some of the metaphors Yu-Yu has a meaning and it refers to the language and culture are closely related, in another culture often can not find corresponding Yu and Yu Yi, which resulted in a culture known as the default Phenomenon. For example: in English "my rib" I am referring to Yu's wife, it comes from the "Bible" story, that is, Adam (Adam)'s wife Eve (Eve) God is with a piece of Adam's rib made. The Chinese did not, "the Bible" cultural background, and there was no analogy with rib habit, so the formation of a corresponding gap. Similarly, "ugly duckling" (Ugly Duckling) refers to the metaphor will get ahead of Little, "early bird" refers to the diligent Yu, in the words into Chinese language, culture, as a result of the default, can not find a corresponding relationship between metaphor . Chinese and Western cultures in the common metaphor Metaphor and culture to a large extent, human beings have a common understanding, rooted in the people's own day-to-day experience. In this connection, often between different ethnic groups are the same. Both English and Chinese language in a lot of abstract thinking that the metaphorical expression is the same. For example: the human child in the period to form a position on the concept of input in that direction in the form of many of them easily understood, including the position expressed by metaphor, which has become a fixed pattern of thinking. For example: The term direction (up, down) to describe people's social status, physical, emotional, and other abstract concepts to the case when the good is up; Sad is down. We Chinese are also not difficult to find a similar sentence: "Gas Prices "," enhance the social status "and" vision "and" depressed. " Since the objective laws of nature with the relative unity of different cultures to understand the nature of the course is similar to the cognitive experience. in the metaphor of the difference between Chinese and Western cultures As the English-Chinese geographical and cultural differences, living in two different cultures in practice there are a lot of differences, and different life experiences and let people understand the objective world, a different language carries different nationalities Cultural characteristics and cultural information. Understanding of metaphor is not out of socio-cultural backgrounds. For example, social and cultural impact of the color words is deep-rooted, some color words in different cultures in an entirely different meaning, has a distinctive feature of our national culture. Such as: English, said in green "inexperienced" and "shallow knowledge", such as: "a green hand", "I was very green when I started working there." The Chinese like to express the meaning of the word is "yellow" Such as: "Huangmaoyatou" and "flower girl". Cultural background knowledge is the metaphor to create a rich source of thinking, as the Eastern and Western cultures are different, metaphors in English and Chinese applications there are also significant differences. The metaphor of the cross-cultural differences between Chinese and Western influence Language is a cultural change in the development of the complex, subject to political, economic, historical, environmental and other factors. Chinese and Western styles are different, but in many ways to infiltrate interaction and integration, language differences and cultural metaphor for the inevitable impact is complex and diverse. metaphorical expression of cultural conflict Different nationalities in the world to observe a different perspective and ideas, different cultures there are a lot of conflict or inconsistency metaphor. If the animal metaphors, in English Long (dragon) is a kind of evil, will belch out smoke monster. "Bible", the dragon is the devil, is a symbol of evil and terror, there is a terrible vicious meaning. The Chinese dragon is in power, the auspicious symbol of Chinese traditional culture, the Chinese have "Wangzichenglong", "descendants of the Dragon." The same analogy in different cultures, different meaning, of two cultures "Dragon" to give a different connotation. differences in living conditions caused by differences in metaphor In English is a lot of metaphor and marine-related, such as: all at sea (at a loss what to do); drink like a fish (drinking cow); fish in the air (Shuizhonglaoyue); give up the ship (give up). In Chinese, there are a lot of the horse or cattle pose a metaphor, such as: "a willing ox" (a willing horse) Gan means to serve the community; "old ox" (a working horse) refers to the hard work; "bragging "(Talk horse), and so on. This is due to different geographical location and natural environment caused by different cultural metaphor. Britain is an island, ultimately, dependent on the sea, and China is a large agricultural country, farming culture deeply feudal society. different religious and cultural differences arising from the metaphor Religious culture of human culture is an important part of it by referring to the nation's religious beliefs, such as the formation of the sense of culture, "the Bible" in the story, with its language and meaning has become a feature of daily life in the West in terms of . For example, power of the keys (the keys to the kingdom of heaven; the rights of the Pope), in the right church, but in the wrong pew (in general is right, but not the details), and so on. Chinese culture and Buddhism, Taoism and more affected by the impact of Confucianism, the Chinese, there are a lot of related argot. "Jiehuaxianfo"; "临时抱佛脚"; "做一天和尚撞一天钟" and so on. It is due to the diversity of culture, resulting in the differences between English and Chinese metaphor. This difference to the cross-cultural communication has brought the impact. As a foreign language students, do not understand the difference between metaphor and language will make mistakes, sometimes mistakenly made good as pleasant, caused by either one or both of the conversation unpleasant; also sometimes mocked as a praise. When a native language other operators do not understand the language contained in the cultural differences, it is often difficult for such language to accurately convey the meaning of the understanding, difficulty to the cross-cultural exchange. 3. Metaphor of the three methods of translation The translation of metaphor not only accurately and effectively convey the original language, but also loyal, accessible, complete reproduction of the original language and cultural connotation and significance. But in the West because of cultural differences and different, so the translation of metaphor in English on the need to consider not only its literal sense, and so on, but also in the West should pay attention to their cultural differences. American Eugene Nida said: "Translation is the exchange between the two cultures. The real success of the translation, even more familiar with the two cultures is more important to master two languages. Because only in terms of its role in the culture In the background will only be meaningful. "Therefore, the translation of metaphor to combining Chinese and Western cultures, and cultural backgrounds to leave the translation, can not be achieved between the two languages of the real exchange. Literal Translation The so-called "literal" is asked in the language when conditions permit, in the translation to maintain the original content, but also to maintain the original form, in particular, to maintain the original metaphor, the image of the nation, and other local color. In the literal translation method to maintain the original expression of the culture and at the same time, target enriched the vocabulary and expression, such as: "a Pandora's box" (Pandora's Box); "chain reaction" (chain reaction). In the original text and asked the information contained in the same culture, we should adopt the literal translation method. (1) You are my sunshine, my only sunshine. : You are my sun, my only sunshine. In Chinese and English, the sun is warm, beautiful, in both languages, they disseminate information on culture are the same. As a rule, and asked in the original text in the form of grammatical structure, similar to the style or color on basically the same, the law should adopt the literal translation. (1) He is another Shylock. : He is also a Shylock. (Note: Shakespeare's Shylock is "The Merchant of Venice" in a very harsh mean business People. ) (2) To carry coals to Newcastle. : Coal to Newcastle. (Note: "Newcastle" is a British coal, coal is superfluous here.) 4. Conclusion Metaphor as a way to figures of speech or skills, a unique feature of grammar, which features make the sentence more flexible and constructive, but the United States. Is a metaphor to express more complex ideas and things, a powerful tool. Wherever and whenever people in their daily lives are often used metaphor. As Mr. Lin Zhuang said: "The metaphor is no longer expanding his knowledge and understanding of a passive process. To help us in the form of new knowledge, the metaphor has played an active role so that we can better a better understanding of the objective world." In English and Chinese Metaphorical significance of the difference is due to cultural differences between East and West, that mode of thinking, moral values and sense of difference. However, different cultural impact of what is the concept of metaphor, it is still a need to examine and address the problem. At the same time, in the metaphor of the process of translation must pay special attention to cultural differences. The best translation is to be able to accurately reflect the true meaning of the author, as well as its cultural and stylistic characteristics of the translation, that is, the translation of metaphor to make as much as possible the original language and to achieve the target language culture, and so on.

摘 要礼仪，是整个社会文明的基础，是社会文明最直接最全面的表现方式。中国是礼仪之邦，有着灿烂的五千年文化华夏文明，在世界上影响深远。著名国学家钱穆先生就曾经说过，“中国文化的核心就是礼”。当在近200多年，随着西方国家的崛起，西方主导着世界。现今国际通行的礼仪基本上是西方礼仪。这种现象的原因并不仅仅是西方的实力强大，深层的原因在于西方人价值观的统一，在于西方人对自身文化的高度认同和深刻觉悟。在今天中西方礼仪文化的融合过程中，我们中国，更多的还是借鉴西方。但无论是借鉴西方的礼仪，或者是我们是自创一套自己的礼仪系统，这在形式上都不难。难的是我们也能有一个完整的价值体系，有对自身文化的高度认同和深刻觉悟。我们借鉴西方礼仪，不仅仅是要借鉴它的形式，更应当借鉴其内在灵魂，只有这样我们才能建立起自己的自信和优越感，才能确立我们的感染力。民族的复兴不仅是实力的复兴，更是一种文化的复兴。只有别人也认同我们的文化，才能真正使我们的礼仪行于世界。关键词：中西方，礼仪，差异 引 言礼仪、是人与人之间交流的规则，是一种语言，也是一种工具。由于形成礼仪的重要根源——宗教信仰的不同，使得世界上信仰不同宗教的人们遵守着各不相同的礼仪。中国是四大文明古国之一，中华民族是唯一传承千年的文明和民族。中国的礼仪，始于夏商周，盛于唐宋，经过不断地发展变化，逐渐形成体系。西方社会，是几大古代文明的继承者，曾一直和东方的中国遥相呼应。经过中世纪的黑暗，最终迎来了文艺复兴，并孕育了资本主义和现代文明，产生了现代科技和文化。中西方有着截然不同的礼仪文化。 随着我国改革开放的步伐日益加快，跨国交际日益增多，中西方礼仪文化的差异更是越发显露，这种差异带来的影响也是不容忽视，在中西礼仪没有得到完美融合之前，我们有必要了解这些礼仪的差异。有于各国的历史与文化底蕴不同，各国人民在进行礼尚交往时的习惯也有不少差异。特别是中西方之间，礼仪上的差别很大，因为不了解这些差异而引起的误会和笑话并不少见。近代历史上有两则故事，相信大家会比较熟悉。故事一是：李鸿章曾应俾斯麦之邀前往赴宴，由于不懂西餐礼仪，把一碗吃水果后洗手的水喝了。当时俾斯麦不了解中国的虚实，为了不使李鸿章丢丑，他也将洗手水一饮而尽，见此情景，其他文武百官只能忍笑奉陪。还有一个故事是：一个国民党军官携夫人去机场迎接来自美国的顾问。双方见面后，美国顾问出于礼貌说:“您的夫人真漂亮!”军官甚感尴尬又不免客套一番：“哪里，哪里!”在中国，这本是一句很普通的客套话，可是蹩脚的翻译却把这句话译成：where?where?美国顾问听了莫明其妙，心想：我只是礼貌地称赞一下他的夫人，他居然问起我他的夫人哪里漂亮?于是他只好说：“从头到脚都漂亮!”这两个故事都是由于中西文化差异闹出的礼仪上的笑话。由此可见，了解中西方礼尚交往之间的习惯差异是很有必要的。往大处来说，一个国家无论是在政治上，还是在经济贸易中，了解对方国家的礼仪习惯，将有利于各国之间的交往。从小处来讲，一个人了解对方的礼仪民间习惯，是对对方的尊重，容易给对方留下一个好印象，以便交往的顺利进行。随着东西方文化的不断发展，东西方的礼仪正在相互融合，西方人逐渐地接受了东方文化中重情感等合理因素，东方人也逐渐地接受了西方文化中先进文明的礼仪和交往方式。但在现实生活中，由于东西方文化的差异而对礼仪产生的影响还很多。1、 研究中西礼仪差异及原因 中西方礼仪差异的背景东方文明和西方文明都是在一定的社会历史条件下产生和发展的，没有孰优孰劣的问题。就西方来说，它的历史只有短短200年，而它的人民是从各个地方移民而来的，众多不同民族和种族都融合在一起。他们信奉的誓言是：“只要我们能够梦想的我们就一定能够实现！”这是西方精神，是在英雄主义和献身精神的基础上建立起来的，以它短短200年的历史，创造了人类史上的灿烂文明，它所创造的生产力，比过去一切世代创造的全部生产力还要多，这就是西方的魅力。造成中西方礼仪差异的根本原因，是中西方文化环境的不同，使得各国的人民有着完全不同的道德标准体系和价值观。 中西方观念的差异东方文化崇尚集体和团体精神,人们的倚赖性较强。而西方文化崇尚独立和个性自由。比如,中国人讲究修身,齐家,治国,平天下,人品是至关重要的，而这种人品是建立在关心国家,热爱集体,家庭和睦,人际关系和谐的基础之上。如果只考虑个人的利益,你的人品则大大的折扣。 而在西方人们法制观念较强。在此前提下,他们崇尚个人自由,不愿受到来自政府,教会或其他组织的干涉,喜欢我行我素。在家庭中,孩子们从小就被灌输自立自强的观念。青年人总是希望自己能尽量早独立,摆脱父母的管束,他们不希望过分的倚赖家庭,倚赖父母,否则,他们将失去自由,失去别人对他们的尊重。再这一点上,中国文化则有所不同。家庭是中国人最重视的生活集体。父母对孩子倍加珍惜,恨不能一切都为孩子想到,以致于当孩子长大成人，结婚时要给孩子大操大办,当孩子有了孩子后,还要牺牲自己的晚年来照顾自己的孙子,即把自己的全部希望寄托在孩子身上,又过分的照顾孩子,结果使孩子的自理能力较差,甚至于在中国今天在计划经济向市场经济转轨过程中,国有企业职工极不情愿丢掉铁饭碗，这种倚赖性是中国传统文化的遗产。这种文化上的差异，导致中西方观念很大的差异，以至于中西方礼仪从根本上有很大的差异。 礼仪是与本土的思想文化相对应的，由于形成礼仪的重要根源――宗教信仰――的不同，使得世界上信仰不同宗教的人们遵守着各不相同的礼仪。梁启超在有名的《劝学篇》里面讲到:“中学为内学,西学为外学;中学致身心,西学应世事。”在礼仪的表现中,西方更多的聚焦在行为、语言的面上；而中国礼仪在长期历史发展过程中,不仅行为人的语言、行动本身具有话语意义,同时还需从行为人的语言、行动中去“悟”出一些东西,在言传的同时,还需意会。东方文明和西方文明都是在一定的社会历史条件下产生和发展的，没有孰优孰劣的问题。 2、 中西方见面的礼仪的差异西方人见面时，不一定会握手，只要笑一笑，打个招呼就行了，即使是第一次见面，而中国人则视握手为一个基本礼节。但在中国握手并没有太多的限定，而西方人握手是有一定礼节的。例如男女之间，女方先伸出手，若女方无握手之意，男子就只能点头鞠躬致意；长幼之间由长辈先伸出手；上下级之间，由上级先伸出手；宾主之间由主人先伸出手。而且握手时应注视对方，并摘下手套，否则会被视为不礼貌。 中西方称呼的差异在西方,称呼是比较笼统的，一个称呼可以涵盖中国很多称呼。例如，西方称呼男的为先生，称呼女的女士或小姐，而在我国“先生”第一解释是“教师”,是对教师最古老最悠久的称谓。随着改革开放,先生已成为社会上最流行的尊称口语，西方人称”uncle”,可以涵盖我国的婶婶，伯母，姨。他们对这些方面的关系也不如中国分明,中国父亲那边的为伯伯，姑姑，堂兄妹，母亲方为舅，姨，表兄妹。在西方，人们见面时喜欢直呼其名，这是亲切友好的表示，纵使交谈之初可能互相用姓称呼，但过一会儿就改称名字。而在中国，人们很喜欢被称为某某经理，某某总裁，因为这是身份与地位的象征。但在西方，人们很少用正式的头衔称呼别人，正式的头衔只用于法官、高级政府官员，军官，医生，教授和高级宗教人士。值得注意的是，西方从来不用行政职务如局长、经理、校长等头衔来称呼别人。 中西方对隐私的看法另外，在与人交谈时，切不可谈及个人的私事，诸如年龄、婚姻、收入、信仰等等。看到别人买的东西不可问其价格；如果看到别人回来，也不能问他去哪儿了或者从哪里来，否则就会遭人厌恶，西方人常用“鼻子伸到人家私生活里来了”这句话来表示对提问人的轻蔑。而在中国，人们对个人隐私的界限远没有这么深刻，人们并不会在意别人对自己的生活作一般了解。但在中国人与美国人打交道时，在中国人看来很普通地问对方一些家庭情况，美国人就很可能认为你侵犯了他的隐私，别有用心，一桩生意很可能就这样泡汤了。 中国人通常是见面喜欢点点头，握握手或行拱手礼，或者微微欠身然后握手，而西方人觉得欠身似乎显得自卑。在西方，特别在欧美国家，拥抱礼却是十分常见的见面礼与道别礼，亲吻礼和吻手礼也是常见的西方见面礼。握手礼来源于西方人类半野蛮半文明时期。这种习惯逐渐演变成今天作为见面和告辞的“握手”礼节，被大多数国家所接受。在我国，握手礼不但在见面和告辞时使用，而且还作为一种祝贺、感谢或相互鼓励的表示。因此是社交中应用最广泛的致意礼节。见面、道别时的礼貌演变到今天就是“你好”、“再见”两个短语，客气的顶多再互相握下手，在各种古怪疾病流行的今天显得简洁而卫生而又体面。然而西方国家，见面就要先送贴面礼、亲吻礼和吻手礼，让我们很不习惯也不能接受。 3、 中西餐餐桌上礼仪的差异中国人有句话叫“民以食为天”，由此可见饮食在中国人心目中的地位，因此中国人将吃饭看作头等大事。中国菜注重菜肴色、香、味、形、意俱全，甚至于超过了对营养的注重，只要好吃又要好看，营养反而显得不重要了。西方的饮食比较讲究营养的搭配和吸收，是一种科学的饮食观念。西方人多注重食物的营养而忽略了食物的色、香、味、形、意如何，他们的饮食多是为了生存和健康，似乎不讲究味的享受。 中西方餐桌氛围的差异在餐饮氛围方面，中国人在吃饭的时候都喜欢热闹，很多人围在一起吃吃喝喝，说说笑笑，大家在一起营造一种热闹温暖的用餐氛围。除非是在很正式的宴会上，中国人在餐桌上并没有什么很特别的礼仪。而西方人在用餐时，都喜欢幽雅、安静的环境，他们认为在餐桌上的时候一定要注意自己的礼仪，不可以失去礼节，比如在进餐时不能发出很难听的声音。 中西方用餐时的差异中西方宴请礼仪也各具特色。从传统习俗上说，中国人请客，不论按长、尊、主、次围桌而坐，满桌丰盛的酒菜，主人频频劝酒，客人谦让礼到。中国人觉得这样的宴客方式才能体现主人的热情和诚恳。另外宴客时崇尚热闹欢快的气氛，讲究面子排场。排场之大，气氛之热闹常常令人叹为观止。较随便的形式则是主人邀上三五知己，到家中由女主人炒几个菜，小酌一番。这种随便的宴客形式不讲究礼仪，不讲究坐次，不讲究饭菜，只讲气氛的和谐、主人的热诚、主客谈话的投机。当然，近年来西方的一些宴客形式，如酒会、招待会、自助餐或冷餐也会传到中国，但这些多是官方或单位出面组织的宴请形式，平民百姓还少有实行。在西方则是以右为尊，男女间隔而座，夫妇也分开而座，女宾客的席位比男宾客的席位稍高，男士要替位于自己右边的女宾客拉椅子，以示对女士的尊重。 另外，西方人用餐时要坐正，认为弯腰，低头，用嘴凑上去吃不礼貌，但是这恰恰是中国人通常吃饭的方式。吃西餐的时候，主人不提倡大肆的饮酒，中国的餐桌上酒是必备之物，以酒助兴，有时为了表示对对方的尊重，喝酒的时候都是一杯一杯的喝。中国人的餐桌要热闹，西洋餐桌则安静。中国人要用言行来劝酒劝食，西方人只是用语言劝酒而已。酒文化在中国由来已久，被视为做生意，交朋友等社交场合不可或缺的。酒杯不空茶水不满。在西方，通常喝啤酒、葡萄酒，不喜欢劝酒。在中国，宴会喜欢共桌共菜，西方则认为不合卫生，实行分餐制。中国人宴请时，觥筹交错，歌舞升平。西方则要求少声响少动作，用餐程序较多。 4、 中西方服饰礼仪的差异古今中外，着装从来都体现着一种社会文化，体现着一个人的文化修养和审美情趣，是一个人的身份、气质、内在素质的无言的介绍信。从某种意义上说，服饰是一门艺术，服饰所能传达的情感与意蕴甚至不是用语言所能替代的。在不同场合，穿着得体、适度的人，给人留下良好的印象，而穿着不当，则会降低人的身份，损害自身的形象。在社交场合，得体的服饰是一种礼貌，一定程度上直接影响着人际关系的和谐。影响着装效果的因素，重要的一是要有文化修养和高雅的审美能力，即所谓“腹有诗书气自华”。二是要有运动健美的素质。健美的形体是着装美的天然条件。三是要掌握着装的常识、着装原则和服饰礼仪的知识，这是达到内外和谐统一美的不可或缺的条件。 中西方服饰礼着重点及代表服饰西方人注重身份，把衣服变成象征，中国注重韵味。如果说西方服饰文化刻意追求表现人体美，而完全忽视了服饰伦理，那么，中国服饰文化由于受到传统的伦理价值观念的影响还或多或少地保留着一些道德上的体统。而最能代表我们国家的是中山装，西方代表装是西装。 穿中山服时，不仅要扣上全部衣扣，而且要系上领扣，并且不允许挽起衣袖。在穿双排扣西服时，必须扣上全部衣扣。穿单排三粒扣西服时，仅能扣上上一粒或中、上两粒扣子；穿单排两粒扣西服时，只能扣上上一粒扣子；不允许扣上单排扣西服的全部衣扣。在穿西服时，宜穿白色衬衫，并打领带，领带打好后的标准长度，是其下端抵达皮带扣。 西方男士在正式社交场合通常穿保守式样的西装，内穿白衬衫，打领带。他们喜欢黑色，因此一般穿黑色的皮鞋。西方女士在正式场合要穿礼服套装。另外女士外出有戴耳环的习俗。西方国家，尤其是在美国，平时人们喜欢穿着休闲装，如T恤加牛仔服。 当今中国人穿着打扮日趋西化，传统的中山装、旗袍等已退出历史舞台。正式场合男女着装已与西方并无二异。在平时的市井生活中，倒会看到不少人穿着背心、短裤、拖鞋等不合礼仪的服。 俗话讲，人是衣服，马是鞍。尽管以貌取人并不可取，但是在现代生活中，服饰越来越成为礼仪的一个重要部分，穿着打扮的得体与否，不仅仅是个人品位的体现，更能成为人们彼此考虑的一个尺度。伟大的英国作家莎士比亚曾经说：“一个人的穿着打扮，就是他的教养、品位、地位的最真实的写照”。那么在日常工作和交往中，尤其是在正规的场合，穿着打扮的问题越来越引起我们现代人的重视。 5、结束语礼仪是一种文化，是文化就有纵向的传承和横向的借鉴与融合。 在今天中西方礼仪文化的融合的过程中，我国更多的还是借鉴西方。但无论是借鉴西方的礼仪，或者是我们是自创一套自己的礼仪系统，这在形式上都不难。难的是我们也能有一个完整的价值体系，有对自身文化的高度认同和深刻觉悟。我们借鉴西方礼仪，不仅仅是要借鉴它的形式，更应当借鉴其内在灵魂，只有这样我们才能建立起自己的自信和优越感，才能确立我们的感染力。民族的复兴不仅是实力的复兴，更是一种文化的复兴。只有别人也认同我们的文化，才能真正使我们的礼仪行于世界。 人无礼则不立，事无礼则不成，国无礼则不宁。一个礼仪缺乏的社会，往往是不成熟的社会。而一个礼仪标准不太统一甚至互相矛盾的社会，往往是一个不和谐的社会。礼仪，是整个社会文明的基础，是社会文明最直接最全面的表现方式。创建和谐社会，必须先从礼仪开始。中国今天面临前所未有的挑战，无论是物质，精神，文化各个方面，都急迫的需要一套完整而合理的价值观进行统一。而礼仪文化无疑是这种统一的“先行军”，只有认清中西礼仪文化的差异，将二者合理有效的融合，方能建立适合中国当代社会的礼仪文化体系，达到和谐社会的理想。参考文献 [1] 金正坤 商务礼仪 北京大学出版社 2004[2] 张占一 试仪焦急文化和知识文化 语言教学与研究 1990[3] 廖文丽 比喻中的中西方文化差异 湘潭大学社会科学学报 2001[4] 吴 冰 中西方文化差异拾零 闽西职业大学学报 2002[5] 邢 东 中美文化差异管窥 全国优秀英语学术论文集 1997[6] 陈 平 商务礼仪 中国电影出版社

古代服饰文化论文参考文献

中国素以“衣冠之国”位居，在中华五千年的文明史中，服饰承载着厚重的传统文化和内涵。在长期占有统治地位的儒家思想影响下，封建社会的等级制度在服饰上有极其显著的反映。它与礼制相结合，颁布律令，规范和管理不同阶层的穿衣戴帽，从服装的质料、服色、图案纹样等都有详尽的规定，以区分君臣士庶服装的差别，充分表现人们的身份、地位。可以说，中国服饰制度具有鲜明、独特的礼制文化特色。一、中国古代服饰纹样始终依从礼制而发展中国古代礼制成于“三皇五帝”时代，到尧舜时，已有成文的“五礼”，最早的有关服饰纹样在礼制中反映的记载是在《虞书·益稷》篇中：“予欲观古人之象，日、月、星辰……以五彩彰施于五色，作服汝明。”意思是说仲雍在举行祭祀礼仪时穿着图腾衣，各部联盟首领在祭祀礼仪活动中以五彩之色施与衣物上，即将十二章花纹用画与绣的方法施于冕服上。“天子衮服十二章”的起源便是由此而来。十二章花纹纹饰的次序为日、月、星、龙、山、华虫、火、宗彝、藻、粉米、黼、黻，这说明当时的服饰图案已经很有特点了。殷商时代社会已出现了等级，但服饰形制还没形成。到了周朝时期，已逐步形成了华夏民族的礼乐衣冠体系。随着各种礼仪制度的确立，上至天子，下至庶民，无论贵贱尊卑，都应穿着相应的服饰，皆以“礼”的精神规范自己的生活。“兴正礼乐，度制于是政，而民和睦，颂声兴”，周朝设礼官掌管天下礼仪，并把这项制度推向了较为完备的阶段。服饰作为一种文化现象，在汉代儒家传统地位确立之前，就被“礼”所约束。随后孔子提出的“克己复礼”，汉代把《仪礼》列入五经。“仪礼”的关注点是整个社会活动，项目繁缛，对于服饰有全面严格的规定，是典型的儒家所倡导的礼制在服饰上的反映，它直接影响了几千年来国人的服饰观念和风格。例如，西汉建立以后，新的统治者吸取了秦朝的教训，在服饰礼制方面规定得十分用心，不仅对百官服饰的样式和色彩进行了严格的规定，甚至对民间服饰也做出了限定。在当时，百姓只能穿着本色的麻布衣，而不得使用其他色彩的服饰。除此，还对生活用品进行详细完备的规定，诸如相关的生活基本需求，如衣帽鞋袜、车马乘骑、日用杂品等。在汉朝，不论花色、品种、质料，还是色彩，都有严格的等级划分。历代更是在朝廷中设立相关的机构对礼制进行管理。作为一种上层建筑，历代统治者都把此作为行为准则，用法制、礼教、哲理等各种手段统治人们的思想，使人们循礼蹈规，安分守己，使之成为相应的风气。在我国封建社会鼎盛时期的唐代，无论是人们的思想，还是物质的生产都达到了一定的历史高度。服饰纹饰以一种“标识”的特有形式显示着封建礼制的等级制度。在《旧唐书·舆服志》中有一段关于中国官服补子起源的记载：“则天天授二年二月朝，集使刺史赐绣袍，各于背上绣八字铭……诸王饰以盘龙及鹿，宰相饰以凤池，尚书饰以对雁。”由此可见，武则天以绣袍赐予百官，是以鸟兽纹样为主，而且装饰部位在前襟后背。这一做法带有一定的标志性，它直接以一个有形的文化符号显示在服装上，使其具有了明显的中国礼制文化特点。到了宋代，宋人受程朱理学的影响，焚金饰、简纹衣，以取纯朴淡雅之美，对妇女的装束也有了详细严格的规定，服饰制度与宋代程朱理学观点有着异常密切的联系。而清代的服饰是我国服饰发展的顶峰，服饰纹样在这时的装饰作用已达到了登峰造极的程度。清代在图案的设计上承袭十二章的纹样，在明代的八吉祥纹样的基础上，集图案的装饰作用之能事，使之达到了繁复的程度。这一时期，服装出现了一种叫“补子”的装饰，以“补子”的纹样代表官职的贵贱，“补子”纹样的差别反映了清代等级的森严。并且清代的帽子一改历代的式样装束，注重帽子上顶戴花翎的装饰，以花翎的不同反映不同的官职。因此，如果分析清代服饰的发展与历代服饰之间的差异，那么，主要表现的就是各种服饰装饰纹样的繁杂堆砌，以及在图案上等级观念的反映。可以说“礼”在中国古代，是法权体系的一个重要支撑。而服饰在这一过程中，则体现了相当重要的补充作用。中国的服饰制度始终与中国礼制思想紧密相连，使中国古代服饰纹样始终依从着礼制而发展。二、礼制促进中国古代服饰纹样的特色发展1.从纹样题材内容上表现服饰作为一种文化形态，贯穿了中国古代各个时期的历史。从服饰的演变中可以看出历史的变迁、经济的发展和中国文化审美意识的嬗变。服饰图纹的普遍性可以被统治阶级利用，以图纹去强硬地推行一种统治制度，这在纹样题材内容上显示得较充分，例如前文所提到的，上古时期衣裳就有“十二章”之制，十二种纹样为日、月、星、辰、山、龙、华虫(即雉)、宗彝、藻(水草)、火、粉米、黼(斧形)、黻(亚形)。十二种纹样各有特定的象征意义，如日、月、星，取其照临光明，如三光之耀之意；龙是神明的象征，同时又不可捉摸，取意应变；山，象征王者的崇高；华虫(雉)，取其有文彩，表示王者有文章之德；宗彝，表示有深浅之知、威猛之德；藻，象征冰清玉洁；火，取其向上；粉米，代表食禄丰厚；黼为斧形，象征决断；黻作两已相背，象征善恶分明等。纹样不同，所属官阶不一样。天子之服，十二章全用，诸侯只能用龙以下八种，卿用藻以下六种，大夫用藻、米、粉米四种图案，士用藻火两种图案，界限分明，不可僭越。而明、清两个朝代用于官服上标明品级的补子纹饰，更是在礼制精神下的产物，是封建帝制的标志之一。2.从纹样色彩上表现中国传统服色尊卑有别，等级森严，其色彩运用具有鲜明的特定性，成为统治阶级权力与等级差别的标志与象征。从西周开始直到明清，历代制定的舆服制度，从统治者到诸臣百官的服饰纹样色彩各有等差。例如《周礼》中规定：“黄帝冕服，玄（黑）衣、赤（红）裳，用十二章，从公爵起视帝服降一等用之。”《尚书大全》中记载十二章纹的色彩是：“山龙纯青，华虫纯黄作会，宗彝纯黑，藻纯白，火纯赤。”另外，统治者祭天时服色要用青，祭祖时服色要用玄，祭桑时服色要用绿色。“秦汉以来服色转变，令唯朝廷五服用彩”，厉禁庶人衣彩，平民只能穿“布衣”“白衣”“皂衣”，而被称为“白丁”“黔首”。封建社会中期以后，规定愈加明确详细，如唐代始以袍服颜色区分官员等级，除皇帝可以穿黄色衣服外，“士庶不得以赤黄为衣”。贞观四年规定二品以上服紫，五品以上服绯；《宋·舆服志》关于文武官员服饰颜色的规定是：“文武三品以上服紫，四品服绯，五品浅绯。”而黄色自隋朝开始则逐渐成为皇帝的专用色和王权的象征。据《清史稿》记载：“龙袍，色用明黄。领、袖俱石青，片金缘。绣文金龙九。列十二章，间以五色云。”这说明清代对龙袍在形制、制作工艺、装饰图案以及对衣服的色彩上都规定得十分严谨苛刻。3.从装饰形式上表现中国传统服饰纹样装饰在很大程度上依然受到服制化、程式化制约，装饰的位置要按古代服制要求或造型构图的需要，将图案纹饰“对号入座”。如《明史·舆服志》记载：“自黄、虞以来，元农、黄裳为十二章。日、月、星辰、山、龙、华虫，其序自上而下为衣之六章。宗彝、藻、火、粉米、黼、黻，其序自下而上为裳之六章。”永乐三年又定：“元衣八章，日、月、龙在肩，星辰、山在背，火、华虫、宗彝在袖……”一般服饰图案装饰位置多选居中式、对称式、呼应式、满地式等形式。儒家说：“德莫大于和，而道莫正于中。”凡具有特定含义，或具有标志作用的图案多采用居中式，如明清时期的龙袍，团龙居中，为正面造型。又《旧五代史·选举志》：“务在酌中，以为定制。”故清代补服为对襟式，宁将补子一剖为二，也不能移动位置与左右，以显“中庸”“方正”的社会观念和哲学思想。凡双数、对应图案多采用对称式，如清代龙袍、蟒袍下摆装饰的“水脚”纹装饰形式，运用对称式能够在视觉上产生一种稳定、端正的感觉。如果纹饰不同，但内容彼此关联的图案，大多采用呼应式。如传统服饰纹样中常见的日月对应、龙凤对应，在装饰位置上彼此关联，相互配合。此装饰形式在民间服饰应用中比较常见。满地式，在女服纹饰中运用较多，有造型逼真的写实花卉、四通八达的几何骨架、满地排列的地子纹等，其花式丰富，排列自由。综上所述，“礼”在中国古代，已经俨然僭越精神文明的界限，而成为法权体系的一个重要支撑。而在这一发展过程中，服饰体现着相当重要的补充作用，它带有强烈的“礼”的色彩标志。我们只有深入发掘、整理研究本民族传统服饰文化体系，才能展现中国服装事业发展中的民族特性和时代特性，让世界进一步认识和了解中国服装文化。