中国文化概论论文1500字英语翻译

中国文化概论论文1500字英语翻译

佛教自两汉之际开始传入中国，在漫长的发展过程中深受儒家、道家的影响，同时也给中国传统文化以深刻的影响，逐步走上了儒释道三教融合的道路，一步步中国化、民族化，成为中国文化的有机组成部分。“魏晋南北朝以来的中国传统文化已不再是纯粹的儒家文化，而是儒佛道三家汇合而成的文化形态了。”(1)佛教与中国传统文化融合除了有一定的社会基础和时代契机，应有思想文化本身的根据。笔者认为，佛教与中国传统文化融合的内在机制是文化选择与重构。选择和重构是同一机制的两个方面，二者相互蕴含，相互作用，共同推动了两种文化的融合。　　作为外来文化形态的佛教之所以能在中国生根、开花、结果，首先归因于文化选择机制的作用，即佛教与中国传统文化的相互交流、相互选择。　　第一，文化选择的根本依据在于需要与价值的契合。　　佛教要在中国生存、流传，必须取得中国社会政治和传统文化的认可、宽容和支持；中国传统文化也需要佛教为自身的进一步发展提供营养和补充。而佛教具有满足这种需要的独特价值：　　宗教价值。中国人宗教的观念、感情淡漠，这与本土宗教发展不充分、不完善相关。中国人首先是把佛教作为宗教引进的。汉明帝永平十年（公元67年）佛教传来说记载：“昔孝明皇帝，梦见神人，身有日光，飞在殿前，欣悦之。明日，博问群臣：‘此为何神？’有通人傅毅曰：‘臣闻天竺有得道者，号之曰佛，飞行虚空，身有日光，殆将其神也。’”(2)遂有西行求法之举。在初传时期，中国人以固有的宗教信仰眼光视之，即把佛教看作神仙方术之一。如汉楚王刘英把释迦牟尼与黄帝、老子并祀：“诵黄老之微言，尚浮屠之仁词”(3)。正如朱黼说：“三代以上，不过曰天而止，一变而为诸侯之盟诅，再变而为燕秦之仙怪，三变而为文景之黄老，四变而为巫蛊，五变而为灾祥，六变而为图谶，然后西方异说，乘其虚而诱惑之。”(4)佛教的传入，给中国人的宗教生活注入了新气息。对于佛教的宗教价值，封建统治者深知：“若彼愚夫、愚妇，理喻之不可，法禁之不可，不有鬼神轮回之说，驱而诱之，其不入井者几希。”(5)哲学价值。佛教既是一种信仰方式，也是一种思维方式。一般说来，宗教以信仰为基础、以解脱为目标，重体验亲证；哲学以知识为根据、以真理为终的，重概念分析。但二者的矛盾和对立，只在有限的范围内才有意义，在更为广阔的背景下往往又相融相通。费尔巴哈指出：“十分明白：哲学或宗教，一般地说，亦即撇开它们独特的区别来说，乃是同一的，因为思维者和信仰者是同一的实体，宗教的形象也就同时既表现思想，也表现事物。的确，每一种一定的宗教，每一种信仰方式，同时也是一定的思维方式，因为任何一个人决不可能相信一件实际上与他的思维能力或表象能力相矛盾的东西。”(6)佛教虽强调信仰，却终究不能不以某种方式诉诸理性，从而表现为人的思想和行动。佛教以哲理为基础，宗教信仰建筑其上，宗教信仰和哲学思辨紧密结合。佛教作为宗教唯心主义，从本质上说是和科学、唯物主义根本对立的，但其中包含了辩证法颗粒和唯物主义因素，尤其是一些范畴闪烁着人类智慧的火花，其哲学思辨水平要高于其他任何宗教。梁漱溟将宗教分为两个等级，唯有佛教处于最高一级。(7)恩格斯也高度评价了佛教的辩证法因素，认为佛教处于人类辩证思维发展的较高阶段上。(8)中国古人重直觉轻分析，不重视理性的思辨和构建严密的体系，“判天地之美，析万物之理”的精神是不充分的。这样，佛教便对中国传统文化产生了巨大的引力和魅力。田昌五指出：“佛教之所以久传不绝，关键在于它有自己的一套哲理。它既是宗教，又是哲学。就印度和中国佛教史来看，它的盛衰是与其哲理的发展程度分不开的。其哲理得到发展，它就盛行于世，其哲理得不到发展，它就要衰落。”(9)佛教还具有一定的社会政治文学艺术等价值。　　第二，文化选择的主要表现在于包容与适应的协调。　　中国传统文化面对佛教的传播、发展表现出极强的包容性和同化力，体现了中华民族强大而鲜明的主体意识。中国文化经过长期“如琢如磨”的发展，已经逐步走向成熟。两汉时虽“独尊儒术”，但并不能真正做到“罢黜百家”，而且在儒家内部也分化为不同的学派。文化的多元性正是其生命力所在。陈独秀认为：“盖文化之为物，每以立异复杂分化而兴隆，以尚同单纯统整而衰退，征之中外历史，莫不同然。”儒家思想适应了封建土地所有制、专制主义中央集权制和封建宗法伦理关系的需要，成为中国封建社会的正统思想，其人文主义和道德理论成为中国传统思想中最具特色的内容，也是抵制、同化任何外来思想的核心力量。“泰山不让土壤，故能成其大，河海不择细流，故能就其深。”（李斯语）中华文化犹如大海，它是不会拒绝江河的汇入的。有了这种恢宏之气，是能够正视自身和外来文化的长短优劣，取寸之长补尺之短，而不会视外来文化为洪水猛兽。历史上多次发生的文化交流和碰撞，充分表明了这一点。　　佛教面对中国传统文化的包容、同化，表现出较强的适应性和调和性。主要体现在：对封建政权的适应。印度佛教认为出世的僧人高于在世的俗人，僧人见了王者不跪拜，这种“无君无父”的主张与中国传统政治观念形成了尖锐冲突。一些佛教领袖深知王权的重要性，提出了不少主张予以适应。如法果吹捧当时的统治者“明睿好道，即是当今如来，沙门宜应尽礼”，“能弘道者人主也。我非拜天子，乃是礼佛耳。”(10)道安也认识到：“不依国主，则法事难立。”(11)虽有象梁武帝这样的统治者力图使佛教国教化，但神权始终未能摆脱对王权的依附。对宗法伦理的适应。佛教作为外来文化有着与本土文化大相径庭的背景，许多原始教义与中国文化传统和名教纲常相抵触。为了适应中国伦理道德观念，在《六方扎经》、《善生子经》、《善生经》等佛经翻译中，通过选、删、节、增等手法，作了相应的调整。如佛典原本《对辛加拉的教导》列举了作为妻子的五项美德：“善于处理工作”，“好好地对待眷属”，“不可走入歧途”，“保护搜集的财产”，“对应做的事情，要巧妙勤奋地去做”。汉译则作了修改：“一者夫从外来，当起迎之；二者夫出不在，当炊蒸扫除待之；三者不得有淫心于外夫，骂言不得还骂作色；四者当用夫教诫，所有什物不得藏匿；五者夫休息盖藏乃得卧”。(12)中国宗法家族系统提倡“夫孝，德之本也。”(13)“孝弟也者，其为仁之本与！”(14)孝成为中国封建社会家族伦理的轴心和维持家族组织结构及秩序的重要杠杆。佛教通过翻译经典，撰写文章，注疏《盂兰盆经》，举行盂兰盆会，举办“俗讲”等，大力宣传孝道论。如孙绰宣扬出家修行是更高的孝行：“父隆则子贵，子贵则父尊。故孝之贵，贵能立身行道，永光厥亲。”(15)对鬼神观念的适应。印度佛教认为，佛是人不是神，虽有超凡的智慧和能力，并不能主宰人世的吉凶祸福。传入后佛、菩萨、罗汉等都成了能飞行变、住动天地的神仙至人。印度佛教讲业报轮回，但并没有主体。传入后接受了灵魂不灭的观念，把不灭的灵魂作为轮回的主体，把不断的神性作为解脱的根据，迎合了中国人的心理需求和文化观念。如慧远宣扬三业、三报、三生的因果报应思想，提出不灭的神（灵魂）是承受果报的主体，并用薪火之喻来论证神不灭。中国人根据因果报应论以有神论看佛教，而慧远的说法是其典型论述。　　第三，中国人的思维方式和语言文字在文化选择中发挥了重要作用。　　佛教传入之初，必须依附中国传统文化。初而依附传统的神仙方术，被视为九十六种方术迷信之一。早期来华的僧人也采用流行的神仙方术手法，附会宣传，吸引徒众。如安世高“七曜五行，医方异术，乃至鸟兽之声，无不综达”(16)，昙柯迦罗“风云星宿，图谶运变，莫不该综”(17)。继而依附道家及玄学，称之“佛道”。当时中国人释阐佛经多用“格义”方法，即把佛理与玄儒两家的学说范畴相比附。这不利于准确地把握佛教理论，外来佛教经中文讲译，而消融于古汉语的思维形式中。如“如性”范畴格义为“本无”、“真如”，被视为派生万物之本原，与本义“如实在那样”相去甚远。鸠摩罗什已意识到这一点：“但改梵为秦，失其藻蔚，虽得大意，殊隔文体，有似嚼饭与人，非徒失味，乃令呕哕也。”(18)但这在两种文化文流、选择之初是不可避免的，今天的翻译仍存在这种情况，而且这也不全是坏事，对于佛教在新的文化氛围中传播进而融合具有积极的意义。实际上，这也是一种创造，形成了既综合中印文化而又不同于中印文化的新学说，开创了一种新的思想境界和文化形态。　　进一步来看，在依附和“格义”背后有更深刻的思维模式问题。不论是名僧还是一般徒众，必然是以中国人的“眼光”看佛教，这就是文化背景、思维模式或“主体的认识图式”问题。即使人们主观上竭力避免偏见、成见、定势，客观公正地理解佛教，而实际效果上还是摆脱不了“中国人”的烙印，排除不掉头脑中长期的民族文化传统的积淀。在中国传统文化中“我注六经”与“六经注我”两种方法、两种现象同时存在，在佛教中“我注佛经”与“佛经注我”同样存在。中国佛教学者大多先受儒家学说洗礼，再经道家思想熏陶，然后接受佛教理论，这以两晋南北朝时代最为突出。如慧远在追忆自己思想转变过程时说：“每寻畴昔，游心世典，以为当年之华苑也。及见《老》、《庄》，便悟名教是应变之虚谈耳。以今而观，则知沉冥之趣，岂得不以佛理为先？”(19)僧肇也说：“尝读老子《道德章》，乃叹曰‘美则美矣，然期栖神冥累之方，犹未尽善’。”后来读《维摩诘经》，“欢喜顶受，披寻玩味，乃言始知所归矣。因此出家。”(20)他们这种知识结构形成的程序和层次，必然会深刻地影响和左右他们对佛教思想的理解和把握，从而对两种文化的融合汇通产生重要影响。　　佛教与中国传统文化融合的重构机制是指在文化选择基础上，双方力图按自己的模式去建构、塑造、规范对方，并相互吸收、相互促进，最终创造出民族化的中国佛教和融汇了佛教思想成果的中国传统文化的新型态。　　第一，佛教和中国传统文化的许多范畴、命题和理论探讨了相同或相近的问题，作出了相同或相近的回答。这首先成为两种文化的结合点，成为融合、重构从可能到现实转化的中介。由此两种文化的融合、重构才逐步展开。　　从总体上看，佛教与中国传统文化的共通性或相似性在于二者都是一种独特的人学，都对人、人生作出了独到的哲学观照。中国传统文化洋溢着浓厚的人文主义气息和韵味，传统哲学是一种社会政治、人生伦理哲学，它始终把热情投注在人、家庭、社会上，寻求道德上的和谐与完善。孔学的核心是人学，孔子的最大贡献是把中国思想界的着眼点“从天上拉回到人间”，开了中国人文、人本思想的先河，此后中国思想之河便沿着这一渊源流淌着。而佛教作为宗教，其本质是人的本质的异化，正如费尔巴哈所说：“人的绝对本质、人的上帝就是人自己的本质”，“神学的秘密就是人学。”(21)马克思说：“宗教是那些没有获得自己或是再度丧失自己的人的自我意识和自我感觉。”(22)佛教包括宇宙观、人生观、伦理学、认识论等多方面内容，但这些并不是等量齐观的。宇宙观和认识论包融于人生观和伦理学之中，是为人生观和伦理学服务的，都是为论证人生解脱的因与果的理论。从一定意义上说，佛教也是一种独特的人学。这样，双方便找到了对话的基础。从微观来看，佛教与中国传统文化在许多问题上存在着相通或相似之处。如，关于佛性与人性。中国传统文化所讲人性主要是探讨人类异于、优于禽兽的特殊属性；佛教所讲佛性主要是探讨众生成佛的根据、条件。两者异中有同，人性论讲人性的善恶，佛性论也讲本性的善恶，在内涵上有相似处。佛性论虽以一切众生为本位，但讲众生主要是就人而言，因此佛性论蕴含了人性论。大乘佛教一般是主张一切众生皆有佛性，但也有主张一阐提没有佛性的，这相类于性善性恶之争。无论性善论还是性恶论都倾向于主张人性平等、人人都可能实现理想人格，“一切众生皆有佛性”主张也承认人性平等，人人都有成佛的可能。佛性论与人性论的相通导致中国佛教从善恶方面讲佛性，如延寿认为：“若以性善性恶凡圣不移，诸佛不断性恶，能现地狱之身；阐提不断性善，常具佛果之体。若以修善修恶就事即殊，因果不同，愚智有别。修一念善，远阶觉地；起一念恶，长没苦轮。(23)关于“六度”与伦理。大乘佛教认为没有众生的解脱，就没有个人的真正解脱，所以提出“救苦救难”、“普渡众生”、“地狱不空，誓不成佛”等，将以个人修习为中心的戒定慧三学扩充为具有广泛社会内容的“六度”（布施、持戒、忍辱、精进、禅定、智慧）。六度体现了大乘佛教的伦理道德观念，一“大悲为首”、“慈悲喜舍”作为佛教道德的出发点；二“诸恶莫作”、“诸善奉行”作为僧侣的行为准则；三“自利利他”、“自觉觉人”作为处理复杂的人际关系的思想基础，这与儒家如出一辙。难怪佛教学者常将五戒与五常相等同，如契嵩认为：“夫不杀，仁也；不盗，义也；不邪淫，礼也；不饮酒，智也；不妄言，信也”(24)，“儒所谓仁、义、礼、智、信者，与吾佛曰慈悲、曰布施、曰恭敬、曰无我、曰智慧、曰不妄言绮语，其目虽不同，而其所以立诚修行善世教人，岂异乎哉？”(25)　　第二，佛教和中国传统文化包含大量的互补因素，具有很强的互补性。两种文化的相互补充，成为文化重构的重要动因和初步表现。中国传统文化取人之长补己之短，发展完善自身，佛教也从中国传统文化中有所得，有所取，补充是相互的双向的。但外来文化、本土文化不同的性质和地位决定了二者的交融中，佛教对于中国传统文化的价值和补充是主要的，如果一种外来文化只能“索取”不能“奉献”，那注定不能被认同和接受。佛教具有较高的哲学思辨水平，在人生的本质、人的认识能力、世界的本原本体、彼岸世界等问题上，对中国传统哲学作了相当精细的补充或予以某些启迪，推动中国传统哲学提出了新的范畴、命题和方法。如时空概念，“《易》有太极，《老》言自然，《周易》首创‘乾坤’二卦，《淮南》始标‘宇宙’之名。从此时空概念渐趋明确。自佛学输入，名相分析日益繁富，”佛学输入了“世界”概念，“世为迁流，界为方位；时间起于刹那，空间别于极微，时间则通三世，空间则统十方，较之旧说，更为圆满。”(25)佛教也从中国传统哲学中吸取了营养，如竺道生首唱“一阐提亦可成佛”，正是儒家“穷理尽性”和“人皆可以为尧舜”思想启迪的结果，他还直接用“穷理尽性”来解说《法华经》的“无量义定”(28)，而他“入理言息”、“得意忘象”的思维方法则来自道家和玄学。佛教的传入和发展不仅为中国人提供了一种比较圆满的信仰方式，也刺激了本土宗教信仰的发展。方立天认为：“道教的成立有其多方面的深刻原因，其中重要原因之一，就是有些人对外来的佛教反感，作为对佛教的反应，中国原有的阴阳家、神仙方术和巫术等汇合一起，形成了道教以与佛教相抗衡”(16)。佛教也吸收了中国传统文化的一些因素，增强自身对中国社会的适应力和对广大徒众的吸引力。如康僧会吸收元气说来宣扬神不灭论：“魂灵与元气相合，终而复始，轮转无际，信有生死殃福所趣。”(29)慧远引黄帝的话来论证形尽神不灭：“形有靡而神不化，以不化乘化，其变无穷。”(30)印度佛教本不重视也不清楚自己已往的确切年代和传法世系，但传入后，中国社会的生产生活方式紧密地结合、反映到佛教中来，佛教依照世俗宗法的继承关系，建立了一套法嗣制度和财产继承制度。任继愈在论禅宗时指出：“禅宗思想中国化，首先在于使生产、生活中国化，把小农经济的机制运用于寺院经济生活。其传法世系，也力图与中国的封建宗法制相呼应，寺主是‘家长’，徒众是子弟，僧众之间维持着家庭、父子、叔侄、祖孙类似的传法世系”，“这也是受南北朝到隋唐以来中国封建门阀世系谱牒之学的影响的反映。”(31)另一方面，儒家依照佛教法统提出了自己的道统说。韩愈首先提出儒家传道系统：“尧以是，传之舜；舜以是，传之禹；禹以是，传之汤；汤以是，传之文武；文武以是，传之周公、孔子”(32)。佛儒道三教自然有不同的功能，但在为封建集权制度服务上却取得一致。佛教作为外来文化，“在人屋檐下不得不低头”；封建统治者对待佛教象对待本土宗教一样“为我所用”，在此问题上不存在华夷之辩、主客之分。各代思想家也极力宣扬这种功能上的一致。慧远指出：“道法之与名教，如来之与尧孔，发致虽殊，潜相影响，出处诚异，终期相同”，“内外之道，可合而明”，“虽曰道殊，所归一也。”(33)。南朝宋文帝认为：“六经典文，本在济俗为治耳，必求性灵真奥，岂得不以佛经为指南耶？……若使率土之滨皆纯此化，则吾坐致太平，夫复何事！”(34)。隋文帝赞誉灵藏说：“弟子是俗人天子，律师为道人天子，……律师度人为善，弟子禁人为恶，言虽有异，意则不殊。”(35)契崇主张：“儒者，圣人之大有为者也；佛者，圣人之大无为者也。有为者以治世，无为者以治心……故治世者非儒不可也，治出世非佛亦不可也。”(36)实际上，统治者鉴于儒教治世、佛教治心、道教养身的不同功能，自唐太宗始行三教并行政策，后来不同时期虽有所偏重，甚至出现“武宗灭佛”，但三教并行总趋势并没有改变，唐宋之际形成三教合一思潮。在宋明理学形成前，“三教合一”主要指三教以不同功能共同服务于封建宗法制度。　　第三，不同于印度佛教的中国佛教、吸收了佛教思想成果的中国传统文化新形态的形成、创造，成为文化重构的最高表现。在一定发展阶段，中国传统文化的某些方面成为佛教最显著的表现形式，反之亦然。春秋战国时期百家争鸣，为中国文化发展开创了多方面可能。汉代，儒家取得独尊地位，但其哲学思辨特别是本体论发展并不充分。魏晋时期以道家思想阐释儒家名教的玄学兴起，谈本论末，说无讲有，标志着中国传统哲学从宇宙生成论向本体论转变。由于玄学的强大影响，直至东晋后期，以空（无）为中心的般若学始终是佛学的主流。总体上说，道安时代的般若学是依附玄学、玄佛合流的产物。按基本论点差异可分心无、即色、本无三派，其矛盾分歧大体上与玄学贵元、崇有、独化各派呼应，并未超出玄学的水平。随着独化论的出现名教与自然关系问题已圆满解决，玄学走入穷途末路，时称“不能拔理于向郭之外”。姚秦时期，鸠摩罗什带来的大乘般若学从根本上冲击了传统的思维方式，这集中体现在僧肇对三派性空理论所作的批判和超越。他认为三派讲空不得要领，都把无有绝对对立，各落一边。他则从万物无自性故不真，不真故空的境界理解有无，不落两边，求乎中道。僧肇般若学把玄佛合流推向顶峰，也是玄佛合流的终结，是佛教中国化和中国哲学本体论发展的新阶段。此时，竺道生经独立思考，孤明先发，首倡阐提成佛之说，此说正是在般若空义思维方式基础上，吸收、发掘中国传统人性论和直觉思维方式的深厚底蕴构建的佛教哲学体系，是佛教理论的自身完善，也符合中国传统文化发展的内在逻辑。佛性论成为中国佛学的主流，至隋唐佛教中国化基本完成，形成了天台、华严、禅宗等中国佛教宗派。这些宗派提出了许多与印度佛教不同的命题和思想，丰富和发展了中国传统哲学。如禅宗以心性论为核心，将其与本体论、成佛论结合起来，是对中国传统心性论的重大发展，对宋明理学有着深远的影响。理学濂、洛、关、闽各家，无一不是“泛滥于诸家，出入于老、释”。宋明理学的形成标志着佛教与中国传统文化双向重构的最后完成。从此，儒释道三教并立的局面发生质的变化，统治集团以儒教代替佛道二教的思想渐占上风。史浩认为：“盖大学之道，……可以修心，可以养生，可以治世，无所处而不当矣，又何假释老之说耶？”(37)这种口气和眼光明显有别于韩愈以来排斥佛老的儒教人物，表明儒教力图拥有绝对权威。佛道思想家也从不同角度推崇儒教，甘愿辅助，道教佛教进一步儒教化。知礼认为：“凡立身行道，世之大务。虽儒释殊途，安能有异？必须先务立身，次谋行道。”(38)智圆自号“中庸子”(39)，契崇撰《中庸解》五篇盛赞儒家中庸之道。理学形成后三教合一的实质是合于理学了。　　综上所述，佛教与中国传统文化融合有其内在根据和必然。在文化选择和重构机制作用下，通过吸引、适应、调和、共存、互补、创造等环节，由点到面，自浅入深，逐步融合，形成了有别于印度佛教的中国佛教和吸收了佛教思想成果的中国传统文化的新型态。

这里是我的博客，你可以参考一下：

，世代相传。“博大”是说中国传统文化的广度---丰富多彩，“精深”是说中国传统文化的深度---高深莫测。有五千年的历史。 3，历史悠久，民族特色。中国的传统文化是中国特有的，与世界上其他民族文化不同，总的来说变化不大。 2。中国的传统文化在某些短暂的历史时期内有所中断，在不同的历史时期或多或少的有所改变，但是大体上没有中断过。 4，博大精深s one culture without Generally speaking， it has not changed National CMore or less，it has changed in different historical China'Extensive and P“Extensive” refers to Chinese traditional cultur's traditional culture )From Generation to G China'试译如下；“Profound”means Chinese traditional cultur's depth—unfathomable，but on the whole it'参考资料2;s breadth—rich and colorful;s traditional culture is unique to China，which is different from other nations'A Long HIt has 5000 years of 4，仅供参考：Chinese traditional culture（or China's traditional culture has been interrupted in some short historical periodsand continue from generation to "And"， said the Chinese traditional culture is the breadth - rich and 2 and national Chinese traditional culture is unique to China， and other ethnic cultures in the 3， has a long Five thousand years of 4 and China's traditional culture in some brief period in history has interrupt， in different historical periods of more or less change， but generally without interruption， overall， "intensive& Passing on from generation to Chinese traditional culture may be interruppted in certain transient period，more or less changed during different historical periods， but on the whole， China maintained its cultural tradition without letup or obvious National Chinese traditional culture is unique， different from other cultures in the A long With five thousand years of Extensive and Extensive is the breadth of Chinese culture---rich and varied， profound is the depth of Chinese culture---unfathomable统文化的广度

中国文化概论论文1500字英语翻译及答案

我给你个题目，你自己写吧。题目就是：《中国文化现状-抄袭文化》

《魏书》的历史文化认同意识 《魏书》创设《序纪》，通过叙述拓跋氏的族属源流，从血统上把拓跋氏融入中华民族，有利于其从文化上认祖归宗。 《魏书》没有纠缠于少数民族建立的政权能否列入正统这个难以说清的问题，而是转换一个角 度，提出了正统不是根据族称，而是以德相承的理论。 《魏书》为三国两晋和十六国的历史画出一个历史发展统序，即汉——魏——西晋——北魏，客观上起到了淡化夷夏之防的历史作用，为多民族国家从分裂逐步走向统一奠定了理论基础。 从中国历史发展看，《魏书》不仅是西晋末年以降中国北方各少数民族历史进程的生动记录，也是这一时期民族融合发展的历史总结。《魏书》中鲜明的历史文化认同意识，对我国多民族统一国家的巩固和发展起到了不可忽视的作用。 《魏书》开篇的《序纪》，是12篇帝纪的引言，也是全书的总纲，作者的匠心和微旨贯彻其间。从历史编撰角度看，史书体例不仅是史书的内部组织结构和表述形式问题，也是通过一定的编撰体例，表达史家一定的历史观念和史学观念。在华夏正统观念占主导地位的历史时期，鲜卑拓跋氏进入中原并依靠军事征服统一北方，他们既有战胜者的优越感，也有因华夏正统观念影响而形成的夷狄民族的自卑感。如何有效说明像鲜卑拓跋氏这样的少数民族政权存在和统治的合理性与合法性，就成为当时一个十分重要的历史问题和现实问题。解决这个问题的办法之一就是从历史上论证少数民族与汉族同根同源，同宗共祖，论证汉人与长期居住在边疆地区的少数民族不是夷夏关系而是兄弟关系，从血统论上找到少数民族政权存在和统治中原地区既合理又合法的历史根据。 《魏书》创设《序纪》最主要的意义就在于通过叙述拓跋氏的族属源流，从血统上把拓跋氏融入中华民族，从文化上认祖归宗，并以此论证北魏政权在中国历史发展序列中的正统地位。黄帝被确立为中华民族的共同祖先，至少可以追溯到战国时期。《魏书·序纪》开篇说：“昔黄帝有子二十五人，或内列诸华，或外分荒服。昌意少子，受封北土，国有大鲜卑山，因以为号。”《序纪》明确表示鲜卑族祖先是黄帝正妃嫘祖所生的第二个儿子昌意之子，按《史记·五帝本纪》的说法，与颛顼应该是兄弟。因为昌意封地在北方，封地内有大鲜卑山，所以因之名号为鲜卑。鲜卑与汉人都是黄帝的子孙后代，二者区别仅在于居住地的不同，这就从族源上表明汉族与鲜卑族是同宗共祖的兄弟，都是黄帝的后裔，不存在尊卑、正统与非正统问题，都可以华夏族的身份承继中国历史发展的统序。《序纪》通过叙说拓跋氏是黄帝子孙而实现认祖归宗，把拓跋氏融入中华民族大家庭，为拓跋氏入主中原提供了历史理论依据。 《序纪》宣称拓跋氏是以黄帝的德运而得名的，拓跋氏一直秉行黄帝的德运，因为“黄帝以土德王，北俗谓土为托，谓后为跋，故以为氏”。拓跋氏不仅是黄帝的子孙，在文化上并未因长期居住在边陲而割断与中原历史和文化的关联。《序纪》又说：“其裔始均，入仕尧世，逐女魃于弱水之北，民赖其勤，帝舜嘉之，命为田祖。”意即昌意的后裔始均在尧时为官，并得到舜的赏识，任命为田祖，即管理农业的官员。既然拓跋氏的祖先在尧、舜时期曾入仕为官，这就进一步肯定了拓跋氏一直是华夏族的一部分。虽然拓跋氏后来过着游牧生活，这仅是其生活的地理环境所致，并不说明他们与农业文明是对立的，因为拓跋氏的祖先们还任过舜的“田祖”，他们对农业是了解的，甚至是内行的。 《序纪》通过族源考索，认祖归宗，追认黄帝也是鲜卑族的祖先，从而说明汉人与鲜卑人同宗共祖，身上流淌的都是黄帝的血脉，二者是兄弟关系。这样的说法有两种直接效果:一是为鲜卑拓跋氏争得个遥遥华祖，为拓跋氏入主中原提供强有力的思想理论依据，使拓跋氏入主中原名正言顺；二是实现对中华民族的历史文化认同，把长期以来被人们视为夷狄的鲜卑族融入中华民族，这不仅是民族观念的重要发展，对促进多民族统一国家的发展也具有积极意义。 《魏书》主张正统不是根据族称，而是以德相承。自班固《汉书》宣扬“汉承尧运”以来，正统论成为史学家们聚讼不息的大问题。班固宣扬刘邦为尧之后从而确立东汉的正统地位，形式虽然较为曲折，但这个传统一直受到后世史家的重视。《魏书·序记》通过族源考索，从历史上和血统上论证了北魏政权的历史合法性和正统地位，但北魏政权要取得汉族士大夫的支持与承认，还需通过为北魏政权“正名”来对其现实存在的合理性与合法性进一步论证。《魏书》为北魏政权正名的方式有二：一是在传目设置上设立“僭伪”、“岛夷”传；二是在北魏的国号上做文章。《魏书》设立“僭伪”、“岛夷”等传，指称和记述东晋、南朝和其他少数民族政权。称东晋、南朝和其他少数民族政权为“僭”为“伪”，是要说明北魏才是正统所在；称宋、齐、梁为“岛夷”，则是要表明北魏才是中原先进文化的继承者。前者是从政治上着眼，后者是从文化传统上考虑。虽然这些都是政治分裂局面在史学上的反映，但从另一侧面也说明了北魏认同中华民族的历史文化，为北魏的政治统治找到了思想基础和理论武器。《魏书》还较为详细地记载了北魏国号议定的过程。从登国元年（386年）4月至天兴元年（398年）6月，拓跋政权的称号始终悬而未定。天兴元年6月，太祖下诏议定国号。群臣大部分都主张以“代”为号，因为“代”具有封国和地域的双重意义。但是，在东晋皇帝司马德宗遣使来朝时，用什么样的国号来与东晋交往，意义就不同寻常了。拓跋珪舍弃群臣之言，选择汉族士人崔玄伯的意见，决定以魏为国号，以与东晋争正统。国号称“魏”，其意义有二：一是“夫魏者，大名，神州之上国”，表明拓跋氏占有中原，理居“正朔”，使东晋标榜的“正朔”失去依据;二是拓跋珪以魏为国号，报书于东晋，等于宣称北魏政权才是曹魏的合法继承者，而夺取曹魏政权的司马氏建立的晋政权是非法的。以正朔自居，旨在争取汉族士大夫的支持。这不仅迎合了拓跋珪贬抑晋主的需要，也反映了北方汉族士人恢复魏晋典章制度文化传统的愿望。 《魏书》没有纠缠于少数民族建立的政权能否列入正统这个难以说清的问题，而是转换一个角度，提出了正统不是根据族称，而是以德相承的理论。《魏书》一方面宣扬北魏建立是“应运龙飞”，“受命维新”，这是天命所在，另一方面又强调北魏兴起的原因是“必有积德累功博利”，实际上是在说正统不是根据族称，而是以德相承。从天意到民心，从历史到现实上把北魏政权说得既合理又合法，北魏太祖拓跋珪成为中华共主理所当然。 《魏书》为三国两晋和十六国的历史画出一个历史发展统序，即汉—魏—西晋—北魏的历史序列，并以魏为正，以吴、蜀为“僭”为“伪”。魏为正统的理由是“魏文奄有中原”，吴、蜀为“僭”为“伪”是因为它们偏居一隅。对吴、蜀“论土不出江汉，语地仅接褒斜”，但还要“握皇符，秉帝籍，三公鼎立，比踪王者”，《魏书》表示出了嘲笑和轻蔑。《魏书》的用意是谁据有中原，谁就是中国的合法继承者。值得注意的是，“僭”、“伪”、“岛夷”等传各卷篇末“史臣曰”与《匈奴刘聪等传》序论声气相应，以正统上国的口气对匈奴、东晋等政权加以贬斥，对东晋、南朝诸代和其他少数民族政权的正统地位作了进一步的否定。但《魏书》在编纂体例上为东晋、南朝诸代和其他少数民族政权分别立传，其用意虽在贬斥但并不排除在外，即“今总其僭伪，列于国籍，俾后之好事，知僭盗之终始焉”。客观上，东晋、南朝和其他少数民族政权曾经或正在占据的地域也是“天下”的重要组成部分，如果没有这些地域作基础，拓跋氏的“天下”将是不完整的。这样的体例设置，突出表现了《魏书》以拓跋鲜卑为中心的大一统民族观，对大一统思想作了新的阐释，客观上也起到了淡化夷夏之防的历史作用，这无疑为多民族国家从分裂逐步走向统一奠定了理论基础。

这里是我的博客，你可以参考一下：

中国文化概论论文英语模板翻译

这些东西都可以再网上查到！关于长城的传说 In the north of China， there lies a 6，700-kilometer-long (4，161-mile-long) ancient Now well-known as the Great Wall of China， it starts at the Jiayuguan Pass of Gansu Province in the west and ends at the Shanhaiguan Pass of Hebei Province in the As one of the Eight Wonders in the world， the Great Wall of China has become the symbol of the Chinese nation and its Lots of beautiful legends and stories about the Great Wall took place following along the construction， and since that time these stories have spread around the Those that happened during construction are abundant， such as Meng Jiangnu's story and the legend of the Jiayuguan P Meng Jiangnu's story is the most famous and widely spread of all the legends about the Great W The story happened during the Qin Dynasty (221BC-206BC) It tells of how Meng Jiangnu's bitter weeping made a section of the Great Wall Meng Jiangnu's husband Fan Qiliang was caught by federal officials and sent to build the Great W Meng Jiangnu heard nothing from him after his departure， so she set out to look for Unfortunately， by the time she reached the great wall， she discovered that her husband had already Hearing the bad news， she cried her heart Her howl caused the collapse of a part of the Great W This story indicates that the Great Wall is the production of tens of thousands of Chinese Another legend about the Jiayuguan Pass tells of a workman named Yi Kaizhan in the Ming Dynasty (1368BC-1644BC) who was proficient in He calculated that it would need 99，999 bricks to build the Jiayuguan P The supervisor did not believe him and said if they miscalculated by even one brick， then all the workmen would be punished to do hard work for three After the completion of the project， one brick was left behind the Xiwong city The supervisor was happy at the sight of the brick and ready to punish However Yi Kaizhan said with deliberation that the brick was put there by a supernatural being to fix the A tiny move would cause the collapse of the Therefore the brick was kept there and never It can still be found there today on the tower of the Jiayuguan P In addition to the above-mentioned stories about the construction of the Great Wall， there are also plenty of stories about current scenic A famous one is the legend of the Beacon T This story happened during the Western Zhou Dynasty (11th century BC-711 BC) King You had a queen named Bao Si， who was very King You liked her very much， however Bao Si never An official gave a suggestion that setting the beacon tower on fire would frighten the King's subjects， and might make the queen King You liked the The subjects were fooled and Bao Si smiled at the sight of the Later enemies invaded Western Zhou， King You set the beacon tower on fire to ask for No subjects came to help because they had been fooled once Thus， King Zhou was killed by the enemy and Western Zhou came to an Beautiful stories and legends about the Great Wall help to keep alive Chinese history and In each dynasty after the building of the Great Wall， many more stories were created and 历史 No one can tell precisely when the building of the Great Wall was started but it is popularly believed that it originated as a military fortification against intrusion by tribes on the borders during the earlier Zhou D Late in the Spring and Autumn Period (770 BC - 476 BC)， the ducal states extended the defence work and built "great" structures to prevent the attacks from other It was not until the Qin Dynasty that the separate walls， constructed by the states of Qin， Yan and Zhao kingdoms， were connected to form a defensive system on the northern border of the country by Emperor Qin Shi Huang (also called Qin Shi Huangdi by westerners or the First Emperor) After the emperor unified the country in 214 BC， he ordered the construction of the It took about ten years to finish and the wall stretched from Linzhao (in the eastern part of today's Gansu Province) in the west to Liaodong (in today's Jilin Province) in the The wall not only served as a defence in the north but also symbolized the power of the From the Qin Dynasty onwards， Xiongnu， an ancient tribe that lived in North China， frequently harassed the northern border of the During the Han Dynasty， Emperor Wu (Han Wu Di)， sent three expeditions to fight against the Xiongnu in 127 BC， 121 BC and 119 BC The Xiongnu were driven into the far north of the G To maintain the safety of the Hexi Corridor (today's Gansu Province)， the emperor ordered the extension of the Great Wall westward into the Hexi Corridor and Xinjiang The ruins of the beacon towers and debris of the Han Wall are still discernible in Dunhuang， Yumen and Y A recent report shows that ruins of the Han Wall have been discovered near Lopnur in China's Xinjiang Further construction and extensions were made in the successive Northern Wei， Northern Qi and Sui The present Great Wall in Beijing is mainly remains from the Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644) During this period， bricks and granite were used when the workers laid the foundation of the wall and sophisticated designs and passes were built in the places of strategic To strengthen the military control of the northern frontiers， the Ming authorities divided the Great Wall into nine zones and placed each under the control of a Zhen (garrison headquarters) The Ming Wall starts from Yalujiang River (in today's Heilongjiang Province)， via today's Liaoning， Hebei， Inner Mongolia， Shanxi， Shaanxi， Ningxia provinces， to G The total length reaches 12，700 li (over 5，000 kilometers) The Shanhaiguan Pass and the Jiayuguan Pass are two well-preserved passes at either Today， the Wall has become a must-see for every visitor to C Few can help saying 'Wow!' when they stand on top of a beacon tower and look at this giant For centuries， the wall served succeeding dynasties as an efficient military However， it was only when a dynasty had weakened from within that invaders from the north were able to advance and Both the Mongols (Yuan Dynasty， 1271-1368) and the Manchurians (Qing Dynasty， 1644-1911) were able take power because of weakness of the government and poverty of the people but never due to any possibility of weakness of the W或者The Great Wall was first built in the Spring and Autumn Period and it have a history over 000 The Great Wall， that is called “the ten-thousand-li Great Wall”， is actually more than 6000 kilometers long， 6-7 meters high and 4-5 meters Every a few hundred meters along the Great Wall there are We Chinese are proud of in the Great wall because it is one of the wonders in the world and it stands for C Today the Great Wall becomes a famous place of interest in the Every year， hundreds of thousands of people， not only from China from also all over the world， come to visit

我这边有一个专门讲传统文化的网站，挺不错，你可以编辑剪切下来上面的文章，添加、修改、润色下，然后，用百度在线翻译，弄成英文，多棒啊~要多少有多少，我就是天才，哇咔咔！

lz你好，lz请吃糖，lz再见~

Grow pu happily and healthily is the theme of people pursuring all the For children，it means playing games happily and do not come into contact with the danger，studying hard and have a health For adults，it means facing and dispoing of the difficulties Everything has the other It is valuable to held the optimistic attithde to the Then how can we do this? Keep studying and improving yourself Not only the rigid contents in the books，but also the great people or things around It is necessary go outside to As the saying gose，a health body is the basic of For example，taking part in the comminity aactivities，fostering the

中国文化概览论文英文翻译

Overview of Chinese Culture中国文化概况 。语言文化类。Language and Culture Class。祝您开心！！！！

Grow pu happily and healthily is the theme of people pursuring all the For children，it means playing games happily and do not come into contact with the danger，studying hard and have a health For adults，it means facing and dispoing of the difficulties Everything has the other It is valuable to held the optimistic attithde to the Then how can we do this? Keep studying and improving yourself Not only the rigid contents in the books，but also the great people or things around It is necessary go outside to As the saying gose，a health body is the basic of For example，taking part in the comminity aactivities，fostering the

中国文化概要论文英文翻译

lz你好，lz请吃糖，lz再见~

Grow pu happily and healthily is the theme of people pursuring all the For children，it means playing games happily and do not come into contact with the danger，studying hard and have a health For adults，it means facing and dispoing of the difficulties Everything has the other It is valuable to held the optimistic attithde to the Then how can we do this? Keep studying and improving yourself Not only the rigid contents in the books，but also the great people or things around It is necessary go outside to As the saying gose，a health body is the basic of For example，taking part in the comminity aactivities，fostering the

这些东西都可以再网上查到！关于长城的传说 In the north of China， there lies a 6，700-kilometer-long (4，161-mile-long) ancient Now well-known as the Great Wall of China， it starts at the Jiayuguan Pass of Gansu Province in the west and ends at the Shanhaiguan Pass of Hebei Province in the As one of the Eight Wonders in the world， the Great Wall of China has become the symbol of the Chinese nation and its Lots of beautiful legends and stories about the Great Wall took place following along the construction， and since that time these stories have spread around the Those that happened during construction are abundant， such as Meng Jiangnu's story and the legend of the Jiayuguan P Meng Jiangnu's story is the most famous and widely spread of all the legends about the Great W The story happened during the Qin Dynasty (221BC-206BC) It tells of how Meng Jiangnu's bitter weeping made a section of the Great Wall Meng Jiangnu's husband Fan Qiliang was caught by federal officials and sent to build the Great W Meng Jiangnu heard nothing from him after his departure， so she set out to look for Unfortunately， by the time she reached the great wall， she discovered that her husband had already Hearing the bad news， she cried her heart Her howl caused the collapse of a part of the Great W This story indicates that the Great Wall is the production of tens of thousands of Chinese Another legend about the Jiayuguan Pass tells of a workman named Yi Kaizhan in the Ming Dynasty (1368BC-1644BC) who was proficient in He calculated that it would need 99，999 bricks to build the Jiayuguan P The supervisor did not believe him and said if they miscalculated by even one brick， then all the workmen would be punished to do hard work for three After the completion of the project， one brick was left behind the Xiwong city The supervisor was happy at the sight of the brick and ready to punish However Yi Kaizhan said with deliberation that the brick was put there by a supernatural being to fix the A tiny move would cause the collapse of the Therefore the brick was kept there and never It can still be found there today on the tower of the Jiayuguan P In addition to the above-mentioned stories about the construction of the Great Wall， there are also plenty of stories about current scenic A famous one is the legend of the Beacon T This story happened during the Western Zhou Dynasty (11th century BC-711 BC) King You had a queen named Bao Si， who was very King You liked her very much， however Bao Si never An official gave a suggestion that setting the beacon tower on fire would frighten the King's subjects， and might make the queen King You liked the The subjects were fooled and Bao Si smiled at the sight of the Later enemies invaded Western Zhou， King You set the beacon tower on fire to ask for No subjects came to help because they had been fooled once Thus， King Zhou was killed by the enemy and Western Zhou came to an Beautiful stories and legends about the Great Wall help to keep alive Chinese history and In each dynasty after the building of the Great Wall， many more stories were created and 历史 No one can tell precisely when the building of the Great Wall was started but it is popularly believed that it originated as a military fortification against intrusion by tribes on the borders during the earlier Zhou D Late in the Spring and Autumn Period (770 BC - 476 BC)， the ducal states extended the defence work and built "great" structures to prevent the attacks from other It was not until the Qin Dynasty that the separate walls， constructed by the states of Qin， Yan and Zhao kingdoms， were connected to form a defensive system on the northern border of the country by Emperor Qin Shi Huang (also called Qin Shi Huangdi by westerners or the First Emperor) After the emperor unified the country in 214 BC， he ordered the construction of the It took about ten years to finish and the wall stretched from Linzhao (in the eastern part of today's Gansu Province) in the west to Liaodong (in today's Jilin Province) in the The wall not only served as a defence in the north but also symbolized the power of the From the Qin Dynasty onwards， Xiongnu， an ancient tribe that lived in North China， frequently harassed the northern border of the During the Han Dynasty， Emperor Wu (Han Wu Di)， sent three expeditions to fight against the Xiongnu in 127 BC， 121 BC and 119 BC The Xiongnu were driven into the far north of the G To maintain the safety of the Hexi Corridor (today's Gansu Province)， the emperor ordered the extension of the Great Wall westward into the Hexi Corridor and Xinjiang The ruins of the beacon towers and debris of the Han Wall are still discernible in Dunhuang， Yumen and Y A recent report shows that ruins of the Han Wall have been discovered near Lopnur in China's Xinjiang Further construction and extensions were made in the successive Northern Wei， Northern Qi and Sui The present Great Wall in Beijing is mainly remains from the Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644) During this period， bricks and granite were used when the workers laid the foundation of the wall and sophisticated designs and passes were built in the places of strategic To strengthen the military control of the northern frontiers， the Ming authorities divided the Great Wall into nine zones and placed each under the control of a Zhen (garrison headquarters) The Ming Wall starts from Yalujiang River (in today's Heilongjiang Province)， via today's Liaoning， Hebei， Inner Mongolia， Shanxi， Shaanxi， Ningxia provinces， to G The total length reaches 12，700 li (over 5，000 kilometers) The Shanhaiguan Pass and the Jiayuguan Pass are two well-preserved passes at either Today， the Wall has become a must-see for every visitor to C Few can help saying 'Wow!' when they stand on top of a beacon tower and look at this giant For centuries， the wall served succeeding dynasties as an efficient military However， it was only when a dynasty had weakened from within that invaders from the north were able to advance and Both the Mongols (Yuan Dynasty， 1271-1368) and the Manchurians (Qing Dynasty， 1644-1911) were able take power because of weakness of the government and poverty of the people but never due to any possibility of weakness of the W或者The Great Wall was first built in the Spring and Autumn Period and it have a history over 000 The Great Wall， that is called “the ten-thousand-li Great Wall”， is actually more than 6000 kilometers long， 6-7 meters high and 4-5 meters Every a few hundred meters along the Great Wall there are We Chinese are proud of in the Great wall because it is one of the wonders in the world and it stands for C Today the Great Wall becomes a famous place of interest in the Every year， hundreds of thousands of people， not only from China from also all over the world， come to visit

1 是孔子吧2 来中国呗